Evans, M. A. and Powell, A. (2007). Conceptual and practical issues related to the design for and sustainability of communities of practice: the case of e-portfolio use in preservice teacher training

Evans, M. A. and Powell, A. (2007).  Conceptual and practical issues related to the design for and sustainability of communities of practice: the case of e-portfolio use in preservice teacher training.  Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 16(2), pp. 199 - 214.  Retrieved on October 10, 2010 from http://ejscontent.ebsco.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/ContentServer.aspx?target=http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface%3Fcontent%3Da779355880%26format%3Dpdf%26magic%3Debscohostejs||AA3D3EFB68C36A3B40C78D54581474B7%26ft%3D.pdf%26userIP%3D139.86.13.152

Evans and Powell discuss the value of eportfolios as a means by which we can share knowledge and preserve authentic practice.  They suggest a healthy critique of the practical aspects to online teaching that supports and maintains additive training for holistic attributes of nextgen learning.

Introduction

As communities of practice are integrated networks that sustain culture, knowledge and objectives, Evans and Powell propose that COPs nurture preservice teachers as a means to develop and archive an expanding knowledge base.  In creating and archiving artefacts, novices gain necessary experience to analyse and self-evaluate individual work.  The National Board of Professional Teaching Standards places emphasis on recognising that teachers form learning communities as part of their professional duties.  Evans and Powell propose that inculcating the values and group unity of communities of practice for preservice teachers facilitates progression to learning communities.

Research by Riel and Becker, and Schlager and Fusco indicate that preservice teachers demonstrate strong individualistic behaviour, and are prone to private practice that undermines the culture of communities of practice.  In a pilot study of science teacher undergraduates it was noted that:

• in place and online activities provided little opportunity for cooperative work;
• academic competition individualised practice;
• paper-based artefacts were less accessible/revisable; and
• private portfolio practice lacked consideration of the public audience.

The study concluded that a gap in values exists between national standards and individual practice.  This analysis reveals that the problems faced in understanding the composite function of communities of practice has not been fully grasped.  Opportunities to delve deeper into initiating pedagogy that embeds mediation and aids learning and teaching comes from observation.

A critique of the use by instructional technologists of the COP metaphor

Instructional technologists propose that class and program level mediation be embedded to facilitate indoctrinating the full function and purpose of COP in preservice teachers before practice.  The methods proposed normally focus on an integration of knowledge and communication technology.  MaKinster et. al. provide an example of teaching that promotes reflection in action and reflection on action.  As reflection allows deeper cognitive processing, preservice teachers adopt behaviour that is valued in the profession.  However, critics suggest that intervention may be misguided as the concept is open to misinterpretation.  Evans and Powell observe that by implementing standards in teacher learning communities the conceptualisations of COP need to be addressed.

In their review of literature, Evans and Powell note primarily that the evolution of the COP metaphor is still in infancy and too little time has passed to conclude that it is a success.  Documentation that affirms the sustainability of COP  with active membership is low.  There is a deficit of critical analysis on which to base or introduce new designs.  Moreover, prescriptive methodology should be analysed by the profession.  While Evans and Powell recommend caution, they argue that by changing the focus of existing online COP, skepticism may be reduced.

The next point Evans and Powell raise concerns the use of technology or ICT (e.g. wikis, HTML), observing that static knowledge does not encourage COP sustainability.  They refer to Shwen and Hara who conclude that not all technology adopted is suitable for practical purposes of COP culture, therefore may not be sufficiently adaptable.  Either the technology is abandoned in favour of more commensurate means of communication, or it encourages deviant behaviour.  Evans and Powell clearly state that while they agree in principal, they anticipate new technology will be designed to support the requirements of online and preservice teachers.  The heart of the issue lies in the specific use of current technology, not in technology in general.  In undergraduate teacher training, the COP has justifiable interest in emerging technology (e.g. Web 2.0 software).  Evans and Powell examine how Wikipedia display attributes of a sustained learning community.  Furthermore, the use of wireless communication devices provides the platform for mlearning.

Evans and Powell describe the issues faced when using language to articulate the concept of COP, which have descriptive constructs that aid understanding of phenomena but has insufficient detail for prescriptive methodology.  As research sets out to describe phenomena and practitioners look for sustainable solutions, Evans and Powell suggest that it may be difficult to contribute positively towards creating and nurturing the growth of COPs.  Design solutions  arise as a means to support sustainable practice from within the community.

Evans and Powell doubt that instructional technologists will be able to design COP, and instead critically analyse existing COP with specific focus on COP that transform via technology.  A study by Evans and Schwen on the US Navy provides insight into the segregation that can occur as a result of an introduction to sophisticated technology.  Learning and development had been disrupted by existing technology that was used as a substitute for ability.  Sailors were unable to contribute in technician communities, disrupting their locus of identity, hence disparity between sailors and technicians developed.  However, Evans and Powell propose that conflict may be averted as developing systems that have clear understanding of the prime objective of COP are adaptable and flexible enough to enhance active participation and learning.

Preservice eportfolio practice: a review of the literature

Eportfolios are used as a means by which preservice teachers are assessed.  Though time consuming to establish, eportfolios are the potential to support the values and attitudes of teacher COP.  Wireless and digital communication is reforming pedagogy allowing global communication (e.g. www) to attract interest, however the sociotechnical framework of teaching COPs is becoming a source of concern for some.  There is some doubt about purpose and identified target audience.  Evans and Powell propose an investigation that takes account of these issues to provide a sustainable structure for COP that are supported by eportfolios and technology.

Expert knowledge in eportfolio research indicates that there is a weakening effect if novices imitate without comprehension, which invalidates pedagogy and renders the artefact an unreliable source.  The strength of eportfolios lies in its ability to connect novices with their product with a focus on the student-teacher network.  Evans and Powell state that literature on eportfolios is inconsistent and confusing, and according to Pecheone "almost non-existent" (pg. 6).  Common themes include mentoring programs, and guidance through existing technology.  Eportfolios develop flexibly according to individuality and program requirements.  A research study noted that neither the lead professor or supervisor of preservice teachers had eportfolios to display as teaching models.  Furthermore, they are incapable of creating themselves what is expected of students.  Love et. al. introduce a taxonomy of eportfolios:

• Level 1 - scrapbook;
• Level 2 - CV;
• Level 3 - curriculum collaboration between student and faculty;
• Level 4 - mentoring leading to mastery; and
• Level 5 - authentic evidence as the authoritative evidence for assessment, evaluating and reporting.

These levels develop as a process of maturation, and eportfolios are crucial to achieving levels 3 - 5.  The following are the physical and theoretical attributes of eportfolios:

1. working or showcase;
2. organisation;
3. type of student artefact;
4. presence and capture of feedback and assessment based on standards;
5. nature of content: static or dynamic and evolving;
6. heuristic processes involved;
7. context provided for each item; and
8. delivery mode.

Evans and Powell critique the taxonomy as in this scenario eportfolios have not been projected further in their capacity as teaching aids, but have instead been limited in context to a product for assessment and review.

Eportfolios are classified as the impetus for group activity and integration, providing the stimulus for feedback and reflection.  This function is of primary importance when considering COP attributes (e.g. active participation and open communication).  In addition, eportfolios provide active encouragement that supports lifelong learning; facilitates and embeds triple loop learning; maintains constructive feedback from peers; and activates professional and personal identity.

Evans and Powell critically examine how this facilitates learning, and stimulates change in assessment format.  Peer interaction sustains the development, diffusion and dispersion of new knowledge.  Traditional assessment methods undermine the efficacy of eportfolios by implementing standardisation.

Assessment and eportfolios

Eportfolios should be regarded as more than a compilation of artefacts to be assessed out of context by rubric marking systems.  Students have ownership of design layout and links as eportfolios are used to accentuate learning and assessment "while assessment systems only support assessment ... initiatives start with a focus on standards, rather than learning" (pg. 8).  Current use of eportfolios stems from accrediting bodies archiving the range of teacher performance that has instigated reforms in the way technology is used.  Standardisation of eportfolios may be viewed as contradictory to COP learning and sustainability.  Feedback suggests that eportfolios are regarded by preservice teachers as an expression of formative learning, but administrative staff look upon them as a means for summative assessment which places emphasis on institutional needs rather than on student requirement.

Assessment systems and meta-analysis

Disparity in views regarding eportfolios stem from a distrust of ICT that is generated by Digital Immigrants who have had access to an era of education without technology.  Portfolios become the identity of the individual and are subject to change and influence directed by learning.  Treuer and Jenson state that continually updating an eportfolio requires careful planning in order to stay true to its objective.

Eportfolio use and the COP metaphor: empirical evidence for existing conflicts

Evans and Powell investigate how eportfolios are a more authentic form of assessing activities and the process as it relates to pedagogy and practice.  A literature review indicates that many researchers have failed to see the connection between learning, eportfolios and COP until recently.  For many students, the problem in creating efficient use of eportfolios has been in identifying and making the transition from paper.  Lack of familiarity with software has prevented students from archiving their projects culminating in an obvious lack of sharing.  Much work has been invalidated by institutional expectation that is shaped by assessment rubrics as student work is limited to linking proficiency with standards.  Evans and Powell question tacit knowledge that has been left out by preservice teachers in order to abide by standardised assessment.

Recommendations for the design for and sustainability of COP

When undertaking change or transformation, social identity should remain intact.  Evans and Powell observe a distinct source of conflict between national standards and student behaviour established via eportfolios.  They argue that current eportfolios do not uphold COP values of a sharing, nurturing environment in such a way that promotes active participation and public sharing of knowledge.  Learning the art of teaching through eportfolios has reached a critical juncture that requires systematic analysis into the reason for neglect or resistance that sustains COP activity.

A student-centered approach with rapid prototyping removes some of the anxiety associated with inhibition and deterioration through lack of activity.  Design and planned methods of intervention have been based on linear approaches to instructional design.  However, linear models are inadequate when listing meso-level (e.g. mid-level) theory (e.g. COP).  Meso-level analysis relinquishes control and precision making it unsuitable to achieve the clarity and linearity expected from micro-level theory.  Models for instructional design should therefore reflect the complexity and chaos of any given community.

The unexpected variable outcomes that arise as a consequence of intervention go unreported or are dealt with ineffectively.  In light of this, it is possible to conclude that unintended consequences have been exposed as errors caused by individual shortcomings and erroneous conceptualisation.  Design work has to integrate with the existing template, rather than obfuscate it.

Web 2.0 technology offers a variety of ICT that enable and facilitate the matching of values between a community of students and standards boards.  A combination of Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 products highlight the types of software available for transmitting and dispersing knowledge that calls for activity (e.g. del.icio.us).  Emergent technology exposes the possibilities for extensive sharing, and promotes active participation.  This model exposes community generated and managed data that is linked to external content.  Preservice teachers are able to direct supervision or peer interest to an eportfolio that demonstrates a value and a social benefit.  In this instance, social bookmarking allows meta-tagging that reveals additional information and connections not found elsewhere.  Evans and Powell state that although this method is widespread in corporate strategy, it is novel in educational strategy.

Conclusion

The objective of the authors has been to interject caution in instructional designers who work to improve the use of ICT in preservice teacher training.  Eportfolios are used to improve and enhance the values and behaviours which are highly regarded in learning communities.  Dysfunction stems from:

• the lack of available discourse to improve and elevate the concepts of COP by identifying traits that establish purpose, development, extinction;
• instructional designers who are heavily invested in ICT laden solutions that may defeat the primary objective of a COP (e.g. participation); and
• instructional designers who are heavily invested in developing a logistic sequence of events intended to achieve COP attributes (e.g. prescription);
• the challenges faced in identifying existing phenomena with a view to projecting recommendations for improvement.

Evans and Powell acknowledge the valid concerns that surround the COP metaphor, but argue for the potential value COP provide.  COP form a rich database from which to understand key issues in identity, practice, boundaries and belonging.  "The impact and value of these sociocultural understandings cannot be denied" (pg. 14).  Technology should be considered a boon to the betterment of society, however caution is required when it is used for initiating intervention.  Latterly technology has come to include wireless devices that reconfigure communication strategies and were unavoidably omitted from earlier research.  Evans and Powell propose that a thorough understanding of COP is necessary before solutions can be effective.

The focus of Evans and Powell's paper lies in discriminating between knowledge and information.  In working towards solutions, the authors reiterate the value of caution and a consideration of unexpected variable outcomes that instructional technology may expose.  The authors question the motives behind the support given to preservice teachers:

• do we support preservice teachers' enculturation;
• are we trying to transform the practice; and
• are we doing both together?

London, M., Polzer, J. T. & Omoregie, H. (2005). Interpersonal Congruence, Transactive Memory, and Feedback Processes: An Integrative Model of Group Learning.

London, M., Polzer, J. T. & Omoregie, H. (2005).  Interpersonal Congruence, Transactive Memory, and Feedback Processes: An Integrative Model of Group Learning.  Human Development Resource Review, 4(114).  Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/4/2/114


This research is a continuation of London's earlier paper (2003) on Antecedents and Consequences of Self-Verification: Implications for Individual and Group Development.  London, Polzer and Omoregie explore how self-verification, group diversity and task demands determine identity negotiating behaviour in self-disclosure and shared feedback.


Self-verification Motivation
Feedback is critical in self-disclosure.  In early stages of formation, shared self-perception confirms what is seen in others is a reflection of ourselves.  Self-verification forms through reassurance in group response.  Group interaction that confirms self-view promotes smooth and harmonious interactions.  This process maintains self-esteem.


London, Polzer and Omoregie state that group members:

• with high self-esteem accept feedback on both positive and negative characteristics;
• with low self-esteem react well to feedback on positive characteristics;

but, when accepting feedback on negative characteristics group members:

• preferred feedback on unfavourable characteristics; and
• preferred working with partners who offer unfavourable feedback.

London, Polzer and Omoregie state that individuals prefer statements of self-verification to self-enhancement.  Motivation for self-verification may correlate with global self-esteem and desire to learn.


Situation Conditions: Member Diversity and Task Interdependence
Group efficacy is interrupted when diversity leads to perceptions of social categories.  Inaccurate views of competence negatively affect interaction and congruence.  When individual social categorisation is replaced with group social categorisation, differences are viewed as the strengths and weaknesses of the group.  Previous work by Polzer indicates that diversity in groups with high interaction improves creativity.  Complex tasks involving sequential interdependence require coordination and cooperation to collect strengths in individual skill, knowledge and experience.  Increased group cohesiveness results in better performance.


Identity Negotiation
Explicit discussion of appraisal is avoided when feedback threatens individual identity.  Negotiation occurs frequently at group inception during the introductory phase of clarifying individual contribution.  A lack of direct feedback results in individuals taking cues from each other and tracking performance data to identify group reaction.


London, Polzer and Omoregie propose the following:

• Proposition 1 - members’ desire for self-verification, learning, and feedback will be positively related to (a) the initiation of self-disclosure of skills, background, personal goals, and conflicts of interest; (b) seeking self-verifying feedback; and (c) giving feedback early in the group process (as early as the first few minutes of the first meeting). Self-enhancement and performance goal orientation will be positively related to asking for positive feedback and affirming/laudatory comments.

• Proposition 2 - situational demands will be positively related to initiation of identity negotiation and feedback. In particular, member diversity and interdependent tasks that require diverse input will be positively related to members (a) disclosing how their skills and background are likely to influence the group’s task and (b) sharing (seeking, receiving, and giving) feedback.

Change
Disruption to preestablished context indicates a need for group re-structuring and re-negotiating identity when:

• group members leave or change;
• tasks, goals and significant progress change; or
• outcomes significant to success or failure indicate a rise in self-esteem or transformation.

• Proposition 3 - change stimulates identity negotiation as an evolving process.

Achieving Self-Verification, Internal Congruence and Transactive Memory
Self-verification
Retaining individual identity motivates the group toward self-verification, London, Polzer and Omoregie propose.  Distinct roles and contribution enhances group integration in ways members recognise and value.  High levels of congruence in groups indicates fewer instances of emotional conflict.


Interpersonal Congruence
Self-verification processes benefit behaviour retrospectively.  Characteristics are recognised and utilised.  London, Polzer and Omoregie highlight the benefit groups of a heterogeneous nature necessitating judgement.


Transactive Memory
By establishing high interpersonal congruence and feedback recognised skills and knowledge become available to the group.  London, Polzer and Omoregie state that transactive memory rests in the beliefs group members' have about each others' expertise.  Transactive memory is the accumulation of group knowledge that cannot be held by a single individual, and can be drawn upon as a resource.  Acquired skills and knowledge are shared and maintained for the benefit of the group.  Core members maintain transactive memory.  Novice members observe experienced group members to increase individual knowledge.


Individuals develop distinct knowledge domain specialisation.  This enhances collective knowledge and individuals gain knowledge at a deeper cognitive level.  London, Polzer and Omoregie indicate research in groupwork has shown that group learning leads to establishing differentiated and specialised knowledge, increases in memory for task related information and accuracy in completing projects.  Members trained on an individual basis do not achieve similar levels of interpersonal congruency.  Overlapping task knowledge occurs, less information is retained and completed tasks are inaccurate.


Expertise defines self-views and identities.  Individual perceptions about group member expertise is relayed through feedback leading to interpersonal congruence.  Related tasks confirm individual thoughts on group member expertise that result in either positive formation  of cognitive association or dysfunctional outcomes.  London, Polzer and Omoregie state that communication is significant in retrieving group information.  Close relationships enhance the development of transactive memory.  Motivation to learn and for recall comes from group expectation for new knowledge.  Characteristics of transactive memory systems are:

• specialisation that is closely connected to group views;
• credibility generated by self-verification processes; and
• coordination of adaptation and transformation.

Mature and well-developed systems are defined by the complexity of a group.  London, Polzer and Omoregie propose that expertise in specialisation and the extent to which group members can accurately describe collective knowledge increases the efficiency of the group.  Recognition and use of relevant knowledge enhances collective reputation for competency and productivity through accurate understanding in solving complex problems.  The authors argue that issues preventing interpersonal congruence explain under-development of transactive memory.  As identity negotiation leads to self-verification and development of transactive memory systems, interpersonal congruence, behavioural routine and knowledge sharing systems are proposed as key factors in successful outcomes.

• Proposition 4 - identity negotiation is positively related to member self-verification, transactive memory and interpersonal congruence.

Feedback
Difficulties in achieving transactive memory and interpersonal congruence lie in levels of positive self-image and self-disclosure.  Feedback has been viewed as threatening to self-image.  Time for reflection is necessary for transformation.  Multi-source feedback directed at individuals or group prompts new interactions in identity negotiation.  Interpersonal congruence and transactive memory are mutually enacted by those receiving and giving feedback.  London, Polzer and Omoregie argue that it is not a product of adjustment to task demands, team leader direction or formal appraisal.


Analysis of feedback encourages members to adopt group abilities of contribution.  Process structure and leader direction relate positively in identity negotiation and shared feedback.  

• Proposition 5 - leader directed activity encourages identity negotiation and self-verification.

Ongoing Group Process, Development and Achievement
Group reflexivity consists of reflection and exploration that leads to a state of readiness and become routine, London, Polzer and Omoregie state.  Through self-verification and interpersonal congruence members establish resources and transactive memory.

• Proposition 6 - interpersonal congruence and transactive memory relates to planning, implementation and assessment.

• Proposition 7 - interventions strengthen the relationship between the development of transactive memory and its use.

• Proposition 8 - change stimulates the group to use its transactive memory.

• Proposition 9 - use of transactive memory is positively related to goal accomplishment and group development.

• Proposition 10 - goal achievement and group development is positively related to continuous and evolving identity negotiation.

• Proposition 11 - either the group or individual members take the initiative to change the situation.

• Proposition 12 - group achievement and development affects members’ motivation for further self-verification.

Directions for Research and Practice
London, Polzer and Omoregie reflect that time is needed to study the effects of interpersonal congruence and transactive memory on outcomes and processes.  Testing efffects of interventions may help identify the processes of developing transactive memory.  An exploration of antecedents to self-verification that prompt identity negotiation is warranted.  The authors question whether conditions of transactive memory and interpersonal congruence are stable, fluid or elastic.  Managerial perspectives indicate a need for evaluation of process and tools.


Conclusion
Time and environment affect group cohesion through processes of identity negotiation and self-verification.    Self-disclosure leads to seeing oneself in others and establishing competencies and expertise. Development of collective knowledge depends on interpersonal congruence and feedback.  Transactive memory increases with individual members understanding of group complexity.  High levels of interpersonal congruence correlate positively with group social categorisation.  Variables in identity negotiating behaviours should be considered as areas for further research.

Ghazali , K. Communication as a tool in developing organisational culture

Paper:        Literature Review

Abstract:    Communication as a tool in organisational learning has generated interest in academic scholars and Human Resource Development (HRD) practitioners.  Research has highlighted the various perspectives that constitute working models and directions for further development.  Schon believed that organisational learning developed from a mutually beneficial relationship between the organisation and the individual.  Critical reflection, experience and intuition are valuable assets in generating knowledge through questioning characteristics of actions and listing the effects on the group.  More effective processes can be implemented as a result of collaborative learning.  Organisation purpose is reflected in clear goals and practices.  Organisational culture expresses the identity, value and beliefs systems that drive the organisation to achieve industry market share.  When individuals are unable to sustain organisational culture, primary factors to maintaining professional commitment and efficacy are negatively affected.  Pratt indicates that there may not be a “one-size fits all” mentality, but models that use Wenger’s communities of practice (COP) can broaden perspectives through positive transformation. 

Introduction

The current era (Thite, 2001) of knowledge gathering is the fastest we’ve experienced.  Technology connects the world and drives evolution in unanticipated global directions as industry moves to define best practice models to achieve the winning edge.  The continuous process of research underscores the need in organisations to make full use of generated knowledge as a learning platform for employees.  Garavan and McCarthy (2003) indicate that project teams benefit organisational learning when collaborative knowledge is shared.  The relationship between individual and organisation has an emphasis on social constructivism (Ryle and Cumming, 2007).  The focus is on the context of activity and researchers are challenged to understand the process of social interaction that shapes collective identity.  Individual learning is valueless to understanding learning in collectives.  A shared repertoire of knowledge and resources are tacit learning methods in collectives that can be used to enhance and negotiate sense-making within the organisation.  Embedded practice through daily activities expresses information and know-how that:

1. regulates individual cooperation with the collective; and
2. ensues in behavioural change that is reflected in performance outcomes.

Individuals depend on each other for acquisition, recall and generation of knowledge.  Although literature has not explained how it is created, sustained or changed we understand that the collective mind is located in interaction.  The behavioural process of goal-driven adaptive capacity and strategies facilitates collective learning.  The key to social construction of meaning making lies in participation and the development of a shared perspective.

Learning in organisations leads to a development of best practice models that are supported through embedded practices.  To implement systems, processes, policies and mechanisms that promote learning, aspects of open communication, communication and dialogue, team working, empowerment and participation within the organisation must be addressed.  By engaging in discussion and reflecting on experience individuals explore reasons for differences in judgment.  Interests, ideologies, agendas, epistemologies and methodologies characterise differences.  Different cultures express different perspectives of experience and being.  By focusing on the evolution of shared meaning and understanding the collective integrated context, individuals are connected through multiple links.

Mezirow’s theory of transformation cited in Anderson (2008) uses prior interpretation of experience to build a new and revised interpretation to guide future action.  He indicates there are five interactive contexts in learning that are significant to organisational learning:

• the frame of reference or meaning perspective in which learning is embedded;
• the conditions of communication;
• the process/sequence in which learning occurs;
• the self-image of the student; and
• the situation encountered during the process.

The reflective transformation of beliefs, attitudes, opinions and emotional reactions are sustained in a mutually beneficial relationship.  Positive outcomes are reflected in performance of the individual and ultimately in organisational achievement.  Facilitated community learning allows for better responses to challenges from the external environment.

Environmental factors that sustain interactive learning systems

Pelz (2004) indicates effective learning is sustained through lifelong learning (Hilsen & Ennals, 2007; Ala-Mutka, Punie & Ferrari, 2009) to create new links to existing philosophies.  Technology creates innovation in skills and abilities (Bennet et al., 2008) that do not relate to critical or analytical production of digital tasks.  Higher order thinking (Anderson, 2008) is supported by asynchronous communication.  The process of higher-order thinking in organisations is facilitated by engaging individuals in negotiated sense-making through collaborative social networks (e.g. professional blogs).  Anderson suggests that it is instructional learning that enhances and supports workplace collaboration through contextual interaction.  Critical aspects of learning are gained through collaboration.

Garavan and McCarthy (2003) examine the characteristics, factors and processes of learning that occur at individual, team and organisational level through interactive learning systems.  Significant indicators of organisational level learning consider routine and the role of culture while individual level learning identifies cognitive and behavioural aspects of self.  Garavan and McCarthy state the objective of organisational learning is learning to enhance company action through processes of knowledge gathering and understanding.  Action, reflection and change through the creation of new knowledge and insight are effective in organisational learning.  Negligible learning occurs when there are gaps in individual level learning.  Strategic organisational learning enhances creativity towards inter-organisational innovation and incorporates two interpretations:

1. learning from experience (sense making as a social process); and
2. learning that is proactive (where specific knowledge gained in real time is applied to strategic initiatives.

Feedback (Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs, 2009) from action reflects the need to adapt or improve current practices.  Poor communications between teams, poor learning or failure to adapt indicate issues in hindering organisational learning.  Team learning provides the interface between the individual and the organisation that has effects at multiple levels.  A cognitive focus sees the organisation in a process of evolution, an entity that gains positive results through shared conceptualisation.  The collective cognition is a shared worldview.  The behavioural process reflects the goal oriented and adaptive capacity of the collective.  The desired outcome is behavioural change that positively affects the collectives’ performance index.

Sustainable outcomes

Although collective learning produces functional outcomes, literature is bringing in to focus some dysfunctional outcomes.  Consistency in individual and collective goals is not sustained.  Significant to this is the relationship to power.  Negative beliefs disable contribution and open communication.  Build up of stress and anxiety affect behavioural and cognitive outcomes.  Collective learning is seen as planned, structured and organised through embedded systems that guide future learning.  It can also be seen as unplanned, organic and iterative meaning that organisations can be hard to train.  A long-term and adaptive approach is required.

Organisational culture and structure influence the context of individual learning.  Integrated contexts connect individuals through multiple links to knowledge, information and viewpoints.  Experience motivates the learning of team members, and viable open communication depends on frequency, depth and quality of dialogue.  Strategic organisational learning focuses on collective learning that can be codified and enhances the organisations learning effectiveness.  Working and learning are interrelated and compatible.  Through collective learning, the organisation is better suited to adapt to external environments.  Difficulties lie in managing the emerging nature of the collective.

HRD face certain challenges in accepting their role and function within the organisation while still creating the framework that facilitates the individuals motivation and willingness to commit.  The processes of learning are considered to be dynamic and highlight the importance of social networking.

The purpose of self-verification

Jorgensen and Keller (2008) point out HRD is a dynamic and heterogeneous discipline where outcomes are characterised by differences.  HRD practitioners construct the framework of HRD through their language.  Jorgensen and Keller suggest that particular attention to working communities of practice within HRD will greatly enhance the learning community.  What is needed to understand the practice of practice is the language that identifies tacit and informal learning.  Instead of looking at HRD activities, focus should be moved to the interplay of activities and their communities or contexts.  Emphasis is given to learning styles and histories based on real situations.  This provides the opportunity for reflection and meaning-making.

Jorgensen and Keller consider organisational learning from a perspective of identity formation.  In negotiating meaning-making, individuals negotiate identity.  Tension exists as it is recognised that from an individual level HRD works towards fulfilling personal potential.  From an organisational level HRD assumes the individual is a resource.  The contradiction faced in organisational learning is due to learning being about creating differences and organising about creating standards.  Identity works simultaneously with the individual and the collective, where the collective is seen as the identity capital – the concept that individuals identify with.  Learning through participation allows the individual to traverse from the periphery to becoming a community member.  The community is created by mutual rules of engagement and language.  Within the community, each individual contributes towards the social in mutually beneficial ways that can only be accomplished through the practices of a culturally specific framework.

Progression towards the objective

Situated learning is indicated to be identity building.  The use of symbols, artifacts and reification in a culturally given context becomes internalised and better developed through communities of practice.  Identity formation becomes a mutually consensual, integrated process of participation.  Narration adds coherence to view activities as part of a larger frame of reference.  Johansson and Heide (2008) have identified an absence of literature in HRD from the perspective of communication and its’ relationship to organisational change.  When communication is used as a tool, participating individuals feel more included, committed and in control.

Alignment occurs when individuals coordinate themselves with the culture and tradition of a community.  Communities of practice positively affect the interactions between HRD practice and modes of participation.  The informal relationship between individual and organisation is structured in Foucauldian-style power.  There is no reason or intention to remove power, as it is not concentrated in one place.  It is found embedded within a network of relationships.  Foucault’s concept of power is structured toward interplay of individuals distributed around the network whose significant characteristic is difference.  We are reminded that power is energy.  How the energy is distributed depends on how it is externalised.  The hierarchy in organisations forms a pyramid where it is directed from the top down.  Managerial discourse in literature links strategy to HRD with emphasis on company perspectives.  Power play is insignificant and invisible during conceptualisation of organisational goals and objectives.

Communities of practice have a more subtle approach where emphasis is on the individual, their backgrounds and their learning trajectories.  The possibilities in attaching communities of practice to HRD contribute to intelligent working systems.  Clashes in discourse at structural and communicative levels explain the lack of common ground on which to base dialogue.  Change that occurs at communicative levels may not similarly occur at stakeholder level.   Studies on occupational identity found overt consent to be a form of resistance.  Talking about a process while activating the opposite constitutes cooperation with management and resisting legitimate authority or shared world view.

Owing to rapid change, the concept of educating is no longer left to formal educational institutions.  Organisations have the competitive advantage through workplace learning.  Members are trained on the job which is considerably cheaper than opting for formal training.  It is said that on the job training provides specific skills not fully appreciated in formal training.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs (2009) describe informal learning as implicit yet unplanned with unpredictable results.  Practical experience creates an active learning environment.  In non-formal learning the individual learns through self-motivation or as a by-product of HRD activities.  Organisations facilitate learning through culture, policy and procedure.  It is the reciprocal interplay between organisation and individual that determines learning outcomes.  Emphasis is placed on conditions that make workplace learning possible.

Task-based learning structure
Gharavi, Love and Cheng (2004) propose an ecological framework as a perspective to view organisational adaptation.  Variety in organisation ensures effective change can help survival.  Natural selection is based on the most adaptable and occurs during scarcity of resource.  The environment chooses organisations that best represent the niche.  The adaptation process to include structures and forms that principally affect the population when organisations replace the old or less adapted.  Their study looks at the way the stock broking industry was revolutionised by its’ adoption of ICT.  A typical cluster structure has the stockbroker as an intermediary between the market and the organisation.  Stockbrokers evolved into gate keepers.  Individual knowledge in capacity and industry best serve market, individual and organisation.  This was driven by conscious experimentation of industry directing evolution.  Organisational evolution is not always straightforward.  Factors examined include socio-cultural, influence, values, power and coalitions.  As organisations are built on values, norms, traditions and other traits of individual members, blueprints on form in policy and procedure are established as best practice.

Corporate communications stem from the need to influence and educate the service team (e.g. stakeholder, employee, customer) to organisational values.  Success is measured through reputation and respectability.  Dhir (2006) observes the attention researchers have focused on economic effects of reputation.  Persuasive language is critical in successful influencing.  Critics have observed that while literature on organisational communication engages discursive and rhetorical analysis, there is not much written form the perspective of public relations.  Literature suggests the lack of interest is the failure in that field to adapt to the environment.  Organisations unable to effectively sustain communication internally and respond to the environment in an era of knowledge economy risk damage to their image and a cycle of decline.  Some rhetoric explores aggressive forms of militaristic style communication to remain competitive.  Standardised communication enhances efficiency, but this dehumanised approach distances individual members.  Much has been done to improve communications theoretically and technologically, but the potential to incur irresponsible corporate social behaviour suggests the need for alternative approaches.

Effective leadership
While an organisations’ main role is to function competitively in industry, protocols and understandings towards ethical practice cannot be breached (e.g. taxes, safety standards).  Tasks are allotted time according to a returns based priority.  Tasks that lack quick returns appear to reflect badly on corporate leadership.  Pace of activity may reflect consumer demand or the need to remain competitive.  Expediency and efficiency are typical and universal measures of effectiveness and success.  But it creates a bottleneck in gathering new information and knowledge, in raising learning levels and in the application of wisdom.  Human fallibility is overcome through dehumanisation processes.  Dehumanisation leads to aggressive behaviour.  Major barriers to change lie in commitment and communication levels in management.

Ferili, Basile, Di Mauro and Esposito believe that language lacks accurate description that can effectively represent the target concept in learning.  The choice of representation has a significant impact on performance.  Low level representation provides information to carry out tasks, but is only remotely related to the target concept.  General abstraction is used as a multi-strategy model introduced before the learning process begins.  When learning takes place at multiple levels, it is said to be effective which can then be compared to the language bias shift, a perspective useful in integration.

Constructive environment

Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield (2009) agree that social reality is a construct but do not agree that organisational learning is influenced and developed by social environment.  Individual and organisations learn through mutual didactic support.  Concepts and ideologies range according to interpretation and perspective on raised view points.  Language is seen as a key aspect of communication and interaction.  Communities of practice is seen to facilitate and define social practice.  The most prominent social aspect is embedded on creation as organisations are established for a particular purpose.  Values are instilled based on their foundation.  The rules and regulations consist of procedures for interaction.  This infrastructure gives the organisation the impetus to learn.  Individual and social groups support evolution.  As structural changes occur, the organisation evolves to adapt and modify behaviour, groups evolve and develop cognitively.  A mutual relationship of learning occurs.

Lifelong learning

Assimilation of new knowledge and accommodation of existing knowledge gives structure to new situations.  Learning is an ongoing cycle of a sequence of phases where concrete experiences generate an opportunity for observation and reflection.  Traditional learning theories were developed pre-ICT and consequently do not take account of a network as the basis for learning processes.  This age of information requires individuals to update knowledge through building, maintaining and using connections (Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari, 2009; Brousseau, Driver Eneroth and Larsson, 1996).  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari use Communities of Inquiry (COI) as a framework to develop online collaborative learning processes.  Reflective discussions are required when developing approaches to real inquiries.

While the individual is not motivated to join a community from a desire to learn, transformation occurs from meaning-making processes.  Connection to others provides strong emotional and cognitive support that increases effectiveness.  Studies indicate novices with low prior knowledge improve when given structure.  Moderated discussion facilitates knowledge construction.  Knowledge that supports identity and practices of the community are more likely to be adopted than knowledge that challenges.  Methods of assessment should include understanding competencies.

Conclusion

Organisational learning and organisational commitment are co-dependent.  Psychological and emotional attachments depend on the strength of employee identification with the goals and values of the organisation (Fornes, Rocco and Wollard, 2008).  Work performance and the internalisation of organisational values affect the self-esteem and self-image of the individual.  Team commitment is derived from individual identification and sense of cohesiveness.  It is enhanced through social involvement and ties between individual and organisation.  Career commitment depends on how deeply motivation, attitude, affect, belief and behavioural intention are embedded in individual identity.  Wengers’ conceptualisation of communities of practice integrates project-initiated knowledge to add to collective learning.  Mentoring and coaching are examples of induction and social networking that facilitates collaborative learning.  It is suggested that HRD create infrastructures, systems and resources to serve collective learning.


References
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Baxter, G. J., Connolly, T. M. & Stansfield, M. (2009). How organisations learn: an information systems development perspective

Baxter, G. J., Connolly, T. M. and Stansfield, M. (2009).  How organisations learn: an information systems development perspective.  Learn Inq 3, pp. 25 - 46.  Retrieved on April 24, 2010 from http://springerlink.metapress.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/
content/p367781448550806/fulltext.pdf


Introduction
Although theories and models of organisational learning have been proposed extensively, none have the edge over others.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate this may be due to multiple perspectives and interpretations.  Three categories that are most prevalent:

• learning as an individual activity - the individual is primarily responsible for learning within the organisation;
• collective and social learning - the predominant factor in organisational multi-level learning and is strongly related to communities of practice; and
• debated theory - can organisations learn as living entities.

The authors' support the view that organisations can learn, and outline the procedure in this paper.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield agree that social reality is a construct but do not agree that organisational learning is influenced and developed by social environment.  Individuals and organisations learn through mutual didactic support.

1. Relationship and association that facilitates individual and organisational learning is discussed.
2. Information systems development (ISD) projects can be used for multi-level learning.
3. Evaluation of organisational learning gives direction to implement measuring learning levels achieved.

What is an organisation?
Concepts and ideologies range according to interpretation and perspective on raised view points.  The authors show preference for Cook and Yanow, and Simon who view the organisation as a system of interrelated roles and cultures.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield use this generally accepted outlook as a basis to question who learns in an organisation and the concept of organisational learning.


Influential work on learning within a social environment has been further developed for analysis in individual patterns of work, communication and social hierarchy formation.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield observe the structure of social groups and the activities that bind them.  Language is seen as a key aspect of communication and interaction, and communities of practice are seen to facilitate and define social practice.


Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield observe the social traits of organisations to identify dynamic or static trends.  The authors recognise that the most prominent social aspect is embedded on creation as organisations are established for particular purpose.  Values are instilled based on their foundation.  The rules and regulations consist of procedures for interaction.  This infrastructure gives the organisation the impetus to learn.  Individual and social groups support evolution.  As structural changes occur, the organisation evolves to adapt and modify behaviour, allowing groups to evolve and develop cognitively.  A mutual relationship of learning occurs.


What is learning?
Learning in organisational learning literature is defined as having process and outcome.  Within the domain of learning in organisation, several aspects have achieved prominence.  The lack of clarity when defining learning in organisations is in part due to processes that occur in conjunction but lead in "different directions and at different speeds".  The presumption here is that organisations learn from human action.  Information systems and their role within the organisation may identify mutual learning relationships.


The technology of an environment is intertwined with individual personal development and professional capacity to learn.  The objective of the information systems must be clear as they support human activity systems.  The authors question whether the fundamental aim of the process is to enhance performance or enhance the infrastructure and ensuing activities for the individual members.  Learning occurs directly and indirectly as groups share, learn and apply new knowledge practically.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate that where individual learning in organisations occurs directly and indirectly, organisations can only learn indirectly.  Learning is summed up as a ‘‘social process where individuals interact and learn from and among one another to develop existing and gain new skills, acquire new knowledge with the intention of leading to an improvement of working practice in their jobs.’’


Organisational learning and the learning organisation
As organisations operate through department sub-units, analysis of a fragmented structure is difficult.  The authors argue that the social element of an organisation is strongly associated with cultural aspects of learning (i.e. context).  It would appear that the organisation has an active role in shaping the learning process.  Knowledge acquired by practical working experience is channeled back into the organisation.  Reflection and modification ensue, thus supporting the well-being of the organisation and increased knowledge of its members.


Understanding the concept of learning in organisations means reflecting on the cultural environment and infrastructure that supports diverse learning styles of individual members.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield note literature draws attention to learning capacity, contextual aspects, social perspectives, narratives and communities of practice.  Organisational learning is about divergent social learning practices that occur as a result of infrastructural support.  The authors cite Cook and Yanow in defining learning as the "operational consequences for the activities of the organisation."


This perspective of social and functionalistic interpretation by Ortenblad indicates that firms transform into learning organisations.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield highlight the on-going debate on classification of terminology - it is argued whether the two terms can be used synonymously and interchangeably or if they are distinct and interrelated.  The authors emphasise the element of infrastructural adaptability and state "in providing human entities with an infrastructure to learn, a learning organisation continues to learn in itself by modifying its behaviour through the tacit knowledge embedded and subsequently interpreted in its information systems and diverse knowledge channels."


Concurrent learning of individuals and organisations
Organisations and individuals develop a reciprocal pattern of learning from each other.


Organisational learning as an individual process
Theories on knowledge creation in organisations indicate that learning transpires from the bottom up and is generated in principle by individuals.  As stated earlier, the authors argue that individual learning cannot take place without appropriate infrastructure.  Learning can be driven by individuals, teams or the organisation.  The shared objective is to facilitate change or improvement.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate that collaboration, interaction and sharing are priorities of a learning organisation.


The social and cultural perspective of organisational learning
The authors cite Wenger who states that learning in organisations should be viewed as a social phenomenon.  Learning in social terms requires communities of practice to understand work in context and setting, otherwise known as learning in situ.  Activity theory of knowledge highlights the need for interaction through collaboration.  Perceptions of organisations evolve to "social learning systems" that directly influence collective learning.  Learning complements knowledge that becomes embedded in the organisations' social practice.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield cite Yanow who argues that if organisations produce fundamental values of a collective, they can also be said to learn.  Members can shape the evolution of the learning structure as the organisation absorbs knowledge from social interactions.


Can organisations learn?
Organisational learning has produced various philosophies that focus on diverse elements and hierarchies.  Reaction to everyday social situations from internal and external environments requires adjustment and evolution.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield quote Hedberg who states that organisations develop "cognitive systems and memories".  While individuals develop personalities, habits and beliefs, organisations develop views and ideologies.  Mental models built at individual level align with organisational processing capabilities.  Research done by Argyris, and Argyris and Schon indicate that double loop learning is essential for members to question policies and objectives held by the organisation, the authors state.  


How organisations can learn through ISD projects
Information system development relies on the social perspective of organisational learning and is similar to communities of practice for the intention is to improve the organisation through computerised knowledge sharing.  Information system development is embedded in activity theory and focuses on multi-level learning.  Projects can adopt new approaches and make modifications as it progresses.  Information system development methodology uses Extreme Programming (XP) to share mental models because of its' agility and lower cost.  Each project requires a satellite group to share existing and new knowledge.  With emphasis on dialogue, Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate that learning maintains social relations.  Undeveloped working communities could adversely affect outcomes.


The authors make reference to an organisations' legacy - the system of environment and processes, and the way individuals interconnect and learn.  The authors refer to the works of Lyytinen and Robey; Levitt and March; Stata; McGill, Slocum and Lei; and Al-Shehab, Hughes and Winstanley who suggest it is important to recognise and learn from past mistakes and experiences.  It is through interpretive reflection that organisations learn during and after project initiation.  In addition to infrastructure, project success depends upon an open-learning culture to support meetings and debriefing.  Similarities from previous projects provide a platform for understanding and knowledge gathering.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield argue that this view point highlights the assumption that organisations can learn.  New projects provide new learning experiences.  Organisations construct modifications to infrastructure.  New knowledge is embedded in organisational memory.  Strategy and decision-making can take on new direction.


Conclusions
The focus of this paper outlines effective use of information system development in determining whether organisations can learn.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate that while knowledge resides in a specific project member initially, the process of information system development allows collective learning to occur.  Interaction, dialogue and sharing utilise skills sets particular to individuals that support a dynamic and fluid social environment.  The authors indicate information system development theory promotes organisation infrastructure through facilitating social processes and see projects as a practical approach for elevating individual-level learning to organisational-level learning.  Thriving social activity develops a culture of flexibility within the organisation.


Through exploring the relevance of organisational memory and learning from past mistakes Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield make a case in understanding how organisations can learn.  For organisational learning to develop, more information on identifying how individuals learn, and consequently how organisations learn, is needed.


Future research
Identification of when organisational learning has occurred is also required.  An establishment of approaches has been called for.  Empirical testing of academic studies will define best practice models to advance the discipline.  A wide focus is needed to include learning approaches from different industry sectors.


Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield have initiated a research project to understand the criteria of recognising organisation learning.  The learning technology used is a blog.  The authors propose that blogs are complementary to the interpretive process and can be conceptualised as an information system.  Generally, blogs have not been identified as a communication tool in information system development.  However, the authors indicate that blogs provide a platform to increase levels of knowledge and stimulate group and organisational reflection.  Analysis of blogs will assess any increase in learning, knowledge or attitudinal behaviour.  By developing Organisational Learning Mechanisms (OLM), organisations develop an effective means that allow individuals to learn and enhance skill sets.  Social and cultural aspects of organisations feature predominantly at individual learning levels where an open-learning culture may lead to creative innovation processes.