Simons, P. R. J., Germans, J. and Ruijters, M. (2003). Forum for organisational learning: combining learning at work, organisational learning and training in new ways

Simons, P. R. J., Germans, J. and Ruijters, M. (2003).  Forum for organisational learning: combining learning at work, organisational learning and training in new ways.  Journal of European Industrial Training, 27(1), pp. 41 - 48.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0030270105.pdf

Introduction

New practice has meant new learning and developmental shifts in higher education to establish best practice and strategic curriculum design to train practitioners.  New roles that have been prepared are:

• Facilitating learning in different kinds of learning environments.  Formal training has given way to accept learning while in practice.  Control is not regulated externally, but turns to self-regulation and problem control to inspire self-development.
• Training and supporting (other) line managers in their role of coach and steward.  As line managers are responsible for training, a responsible attitude would be to ensure that they have the required support to understand the full function and purpose of the program as it relates to corporate strategy.
• Integrating learning in new technology and the electronic high way: e-learning.  The ubiquitous use of technology has meant that access to e-learning has been integrated into working practice.
• Facilitating team learning.  Collective learning is a vital aspect of networked practice, but specialists trained in stimulating relevant communication are few.
• Facilitating organisational learning.  As creating the stimuli and design for organisational learning is a recent requirement, locating and providing adequate support is a necessity.
• Teaching how to learn at the individual, team and organisational levels.  Training sectors of the organisation inevitably leads to change as performance and roles change.  Abilities are developed and indicate that the learning strategy take into consideration the need to redesign the program to suit applicable needs.
• Guarding and nurturing the alignment of the three kinds of learning.  Learning will necessarily entail tranformation and new roles will develop.
• Focusing on long term development of all members of the organisation.  Both short term and long term development are critical to maintaining sustainability.

The new model is seen to sustain the individual, group, and community in transforming the organisation into a learning enterprise.  Individuals who self-regulate and integrate work with learning are more likely to increase their value.  Simons, Germans and Ruijters state that the following are procedures that have worked well:

• Regular integrative reflections.  Group learning formulates the discourse required for sense-making without the presence of a leader.  Exchange makes new sense of old information.  Situation activity permits individuals to put into practice what they have learned immediately.
• Collective reporting.  Documented evidence (e.g. minutes of meetings) has several benefits: 1) archived artefacts contribute to generation-loop learning; 2) details and project information prevent false associative memory recall; and 3) report writing improves.
• Obligatory intervision groups.  Groups of no more than three meet monthly to host domain specific question and answer both on a professional and personal front.
• E-mail and internet communication between sessions.  Various forms of communication are supported to facilitate and aid learning between sessions.
• Active didactical procedures.  Although lecturing is a widespread method of dispersing information, it functions as only half the program as more active forms of participation are favoured (e.g. simulation, performing before members of external groups).

Although a significant amount of learning was acquired by group members, the study found that individuals were unable to transform the organisation, and suffered dissatisfaction from their inability to effect change.  This led to several members leaving to start their own ventures, or cooperating with other members to create new approaches.

Simons, Germans and Ruijters were not satisfied with the results of their study and devised a new strategy for implementation.  Training programs are reserved for members of a Forum for organisational learning, indicating that potential individual members are sponsored by empathic organisations.

Learning in learning organisations

Workplace learning and organisational learning are intertwined and are inseparable.  Without the scope and framework of organisational structure in which to implement learning, development and growth are unharnessed resources.  Furthermore, the interests of individual, group and community are enhanced through community bonding, thus building a learning organisation.

Learning organisations are nimble in that individual members who control are able to adapt to environmental demand and learn new techniques as individuals and as a collective.  It is expected that organisational activities embed learning systems that benefit the entire organism.

Organisational learning

The learning organisation is a metaphor for organisations that change and transform organisational behaviour through learning activities.  Traditional methods of organisational learning have been identified as having five contributory factors:

1. acquisition of knowledge/information;
2. sharing of knowledge/information;
3. constructing meaning;
4. organisational memory; and
5. retrieval of information.

Since then, new information has emerged on the creation and dissemination of knowledge.  Specific focus has been paid to non-formal learning, and tacit learning.  In exchanging experience and by sharing mental models, individuals create new collective knowledge.

Team learning

Collective learning results in changes to culture.  The process and outcome of team learning can be either implicit or explicit.  Goals may change and drive direction in different paths.  Learning provides an element of supportive structure for the group as opportunities to learn are created and stimulation from other members to implement and exchange knowledge.  Constructive feedback is seen as rewarding and beneficial for both individual and collective. As individuals develop and learn from each other, they are more able to adopt and adapt to colleague mentality.

To support this framework, organisations are asked to turn to Wenger's model on communities of practice.  Simons, Germans and Ruijters propose that there is a distinction between communities of practice, communities that learn around a common shared purpose, and communities of learning, with no common practice but have a shared interest in learning.

Individual learning

Where individuals learn is significant to learning ability.  Off-premise learning is gaining in popularity, and training programs have been designed specifically for such eventualities.  Control of learning is shifting from the trainer to individual who self-regulates goal, task and performance.  When working to alleviate problems, learning occurs potentially without conscious awareness (see July for Dijksterhuis & Aarts) and the individual is unaware that learning has taken place, or more importantly, what learning can be gained from the experience.

Forum for organisational learning

In this working model, the forum was established to take in master apprentices.  They, in turn, bring two or three more colleagues who represent a community of practice, whereas those involved in the masters programs form a community of learning.  A coach is assigned to help develop and implement prospective change.  Line managers from the organisation responsible for in-house training and development are asked to attend ad-hoc.  Involving organisations in pedagogy represents a level of commitment to all three entities (e.g. individual, group, collective).  In addition, participating organisations are presented with an opportunity to create new and lasting networks.

The sequence to an inquiry learning model is as follows:

1. make tacit knowledge of existing practice explicit, and integrate multi-level perspectives for an holistic and comprehensive image of the organisation;
2. build a working model from tacit knowledge and action research; single-loop learning will alter goals;
3. metatheory is applied to verify learning and inquiry;
4. making the decision to choose goals based on information in step 3;
5. designing and implementing the change strategy.

Winch, A. and Ingram, H. (2002). Re-defining the focus of workplace learning

Winch, A. and Ingram, H. (2002).  Re-defining the focus of workplace learning.  International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 14(7), pp. 361 - 367.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0410140706.pdf

Introduction

The rise and domination of essential technology has caused a scramble to secure market share economy.  Organisations have realised the unique competitive edge knowledge brings, and platforms to secure global information are now available at the touch of a button.  Winch and Ingram state that the prevalence of choice indicates there is an uncertainty about the direction in which technology is growing.  Questions they pose concerning e-learning strategies:

• How do people learn?  We contend that the energy must be focused on the learner, not on the technology.
• How will technology inform the relationship between the individual and the organisation?
• Will this relationship be characterised by a pre-defined box of knowledge or will it provide the freedom to think and create?

A study of Interbrew, UK provided a learning and development model that has transformed the organisation from a competency-based learning community to a curriculum that embeds corporate strategy.

Learning and maturity

Epistemic belief, or personal construct, is either the block or motivation to accepting change.  Social interaction is a means to make collective meaning and create new standards.  Supportive structures in communities embed learning activities.  However, training programs are seen to teach an individual superficial abilities, whereas learning is a deeper cognitive process that empowers.  The content and quality of training programs ensures quick success that facilitate the know-what stage of development.  Learning is born of a desire to know how and why.

Developing learning systems within communities generates a bond in members that encompasses the tacit underlying function of the organisation.  As learning comes from the ground up, novice members are introduced to holism as a perspective from which to view the community.  Action learning involves collaborative sense-making negotiated from the environment.

The developmental stage that an individual is engaged with is reflective of the capacity for behavioural output.  IQ levels are somewhat secondary in significance to the influence, or internal pressure, an individual has over negotiated meaning-making.

Piagett's model of child development, researched to identify the seven stages of adult development, shows that stages can only be processed over time (e.g being 30 or 40 years old is not better or worse than any other age, it's just different).  Winch and Ingram describe the stages as:

1. Opportunist.  Focus is on self-awareness, self-interest, self-protection and impulse;
2. Diplomat.  Is defined by socially acceptable behaviour and belonging.
3. Expert.  An internal craft logic rules, there is strong need for consistency and improvement.  Rational behaviour is exhibited;
4. Achiever.  Heavily focused on results, goals and plans;
5. Individualist.  Has an awareness of relativity, and is confident in her ability to create an impact.
6. Strategist.  Is process- and goal-oriented, with a comprehensive  understanding of organisational systems.  Development over time.
7. Magician.  There is an interplay of awareness, thought, action and effect.  Transforms self and others.

• up to and including achiever status - conventional;
• individualist, strategist and magician - post-conventional.

16% of the studied population tested positive for post-conventional status, and 1% tested positive for magician status.  Managerial groups are predominantly post-conventionalists.  The stage an individual is in correlates to learning styles and approach to life.  The effectiveness of individual lies in her maturity.

Research

Using Interbrew as a case study, Winch and Ingram were able to integrate theory with tests and interviews when researching action learning.  Ultimately, they learned that action learning requires more than just a content driven program.  Furthermore, the level of maturity managers have directly influence the approach taken.

Action learning

Interbrew runs training through its business school.  Interviews with employees gave clear indication that action learning allows individuals to process information in such a way that multi-level learning occurs (e.g. improved networks, new relations).  Traditional hierarchical roles are flattened as group members bond and work together according to competence.  Novice or junior members feel a sense of engagement, that contributed pragmatism offers new insight.

Leadership maturity program

Of the 47 test respondents, most were categorised as having the achiever profile, with expert and individualist profile-types came next.  There were 2 diplomats and 1 strategist.

Results of the study revealed that each individual who attended training reported an increase in positive self-perception and value.  Action learning was found to facilitate the need for reflection on direction and goals.  Additionally, the level of maturity an individual possesses affects factors such as task performance, function and gender.  In view of the fact that individuals process developmental stages in their own time and according to their experience, management trainers are required to consider methods of assessment that enhance reflective learning.

Summary findings from the research

contributions from the interviews reveal the following:

• individuals are characterised by epistemic belief that shapes internal passion, reason, identity, and future;
• learning is chaotic in that it is not a linear process, and very often does not conform to behavioural input-output theory immediately, or recognisably;
• as individuals develop at different times, support structures work best when processes are learner-driven and learner-centered;
• the complexity of developing future talent in-house should not be left to operations managers who are guided by "toolkits".  An active and integrated approach is required.
• action learning is an explicit strategy that raises an awareness of the value of knowledge by creating varied outcomes.  The variety in outcomes experienced is a reminder that each individual realises potential in abstract ways that expresses epistemology.
• leaders are required to demonstrate the abilities developed from double-loop learning, and to work reliably within diversity and adversity.  The ability to build and maintain genuine trustworthy relations internally and externally generates the courage to actively contribute towards community mission.
• the organisation transformed to the stage of achiever/expert, which suggests that while individualists have much to contribute, they were rejected.

A revised model

Winch and Ingram's hypothesis was confirmed by the study, with minor modifications made to the model as praxis confirmed theory.  Themes from literature were identified, but the exact nature of what happens between learning and outcome has not been isolated.  Given this, Winch and Ingram present a revised model.

The second model is completely learner-centered instead of viewing the individual as one of several vital aspects.  Interpersonal congruence interlinks social groupings to form culture, that leads to innovation and creativity in acceptable standards.  Meaning-making and identity is a negotiated compromise that is fundamental to the learning process.

The study findings

Interbrew verified that action learning makes a strong impact in supporting group strategy.

Evaluation of current learning provision

Observations of prior practice included the analysis of role model skills and attributes.  While specialists bring expert knowledge, they are not always equipped to manage or transmit learning.  Appraisals require updates to take into consideration the new needs of individuals within the current context.

Study recommendations

Based on their findings, Winch and Ingram propose three central themes: strategic principles; learning and development expertise; and an overarching framework.  With individuals at the forefront, the learning experience should focus on activity as an integral function to acquiring content.  Thus, new principles to be adopted as a matter of concern are:

• human centered learning strategies;
• having the perception that organisations are living entities, rather than machines;
• expecting human behaviour, and not conceptual modes of being;
• holistically accepting the individual in order to align learning strategies that realise potential.
• implementation of these principles be contained to individuals who have established the role as a career in the field so that learning becomes a 'gateway' rather than an 'add-on'.

Integrating the learning model and recommendations

Given that individuals learn at their own pace, the learning and development strategy can only hope to effect the right environment.  In reconciling organisation and individual through education, separation occurs.  Personal paradigm shifts are required (e.g. non-delusional).  When constraints are 'discovered' through learning, resistance occurs.

Implications for learning and development in organisations

Knowledge workers are becoming an asset and valued resource as organisations do their best to sustain a competitive edge.  Until an individual has achieved a sustainable life for herself, working memory is distracted.  Personal development becomes a pressing need and, if aligned with organisational purpose, enjoyment can be found in correlated growth.  Organisational literature perpetuates the perspective of current development and are practical approaches to building metatheory.

Collin, K. (2009). Work-related identity in individual and social learning at work

Collin, K. (2009).  Work-related identity in individual and social learning at work.  Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(1), pp 23 - 35.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0860210102.pdf


Introduction and aims of the study
Dynamic changes in the structure of organisations in response to the economy require similar levels of adaptability in individuals.  Organisation culture presents values and other similar attributes that an individual can align themselves with.  In order to create the framework, a learning design is embedded.  The identity of an individual is clearly connected to their knowledge.  Behaviour reveals commitment levels and responsibility towards the community.  Collin investigates the significance of individual identity and the acceptance of a professional public image, and pays particular attention to studies that show that professional adult learning becomes the knowledge that shapes identity.  Individual identity is constructed of components taken from the environment and professional practice (e.g. research becomes a balance of individual and professional identity).


Social interaction was not recognised as a function of professional learning until recently.  Tacit knowledge is the intangible value of experience and discourse, or what may be seen as linking the identity an individual portrays informally with the identity that is generated professionally.  In a study conducted on engineers in Finland, Collin surveyed the different learning trajectories that four individuals made over a seven year period.


Identity construction and learning at work
Professionals take identity from their job.  As learning is significantly related to meaning making, research is more focused on the holistic measure of identity.  Motivation to align group and individual identity may cause friction when professional values are in conflict with individual values.  Individual learning experiences are recognised prior learning.  Interactive identity building processes are embedded in daily activity.  Content and context is important.  Participation is critical.  These are images embedded in the approval that individuals are subjected to from the environment.  Negative experience leads to marginalisation that affects the individuals mental health and consequent related outcomes.


Identity is linked to group culture.  Within that commitment is the detail of everyday life (e.g. job title).  Committed and dedicated involvement to community practice transforms an individual holistically (e.g. increasing interest and motivation develops as novice equestrian members see the discipline as a profession).  Members whose focus lies elsewhere are unconcerned with labelling, or with performance and achievement outcomes.  A sense of proportion between work and life balances indicate that individuals exercise self-agency in determining their value and worth as it relates to profession and socio-economic factors.


Research has shown that individual identity is strongly linked to the work community.  Shared interest is a strong motivational aspect to learning that consequently embodies identity congruence, or dedication to group values and norms.  Shared narratives represent learning.  Collins approaches this study with a view to understand the value of linking individual and social task-based learning which is an ongoing dynamic process that is flexible.  Social change is a naturally occuring process of interaction between members.  Learning interactions have the ability to change and influence role or function.  Attachment involves concern for the "we-ness" (pg. 2) of the group.


Context and participation
Employees, product designers of a company in Finland, were interviewed in 2000 and 2007.  When interviewed in 2000, the group of four participants made modified versions of the organisations' core product to fit client needs.  All four designers had many years of experience and understood the total concept and sequence of production.  The group focus was on designing suitable products that matched technology in assembly lines and customer requirement.


By 2007, the organisation had undergone a series of changes that affected the nature of tasks.  Cutbacks led to lay offs and retrenchment.  When economic stability was reached, a union of managers bought majority stakes in the company and cut ties.  In the process of reorganisation and restructuring, old systems are adapted to suit the new environs.  Several changes in ownership shortly after caused radical changes and insecurity in employees.


Methods
The first interview was conducted in 2000 to investigate workplace learning.  The second interview in 2007 investigated the construction of work-related identity.  Information gathered came in narrative form, making explicit individual knowledge.  Transcripts revealed individual reflection of role and context that transforms individual practice (e.g. appraisals).  The sequence of self-analysis progressed from understanding the process holistically to micro-management and insight into how learning and identity are symbiotic.


An holistic picture of the participants was created from the transcripts.  Individuals were profiled and categorised according to themes, experience & seniority levels.  Comparisons were made between both interviews to identify progress and evolution.


Findings and discussion
The study highlighted four trends that were significant to workplace learning and identity development labelled "the giving-up story, success story, survival story and readjustment story" (pg. 4). 


The giving-up story - Martti
E.g. an individual joins an organisation and gradually moves into different areas of interest.  For the individual, work rarely becomes routine and a diversity of skills and knowledge develop with experience.  The community network becomes apparent as Martti interacts with other members to gain information about process and function.  Discourse develops with colleagues and customers, and inter-organisational relationships develop external links.


Interaction and experience is perceived as the means of knowledge gathering.  In this instance, the individual did not feel that the experience gained during the years of service was acknowledged by the organisation and understood this to be the barrier to learning more.  In the seven years between interviews, it was noted that employee wellbeing and community spirit had dissipated during transitions.  Significant attributes to good managing such as positive or constructive feedback were lacking, as were appropriate professional attitudes (e.g. the professional distance between manager and employee).  Martti accepts that an approaching retirement, fixed income and contact with a network of peers is what engages his interest.


The success story - Marko
E.g. an individual joins an organisation with the strategy to engage in further development with an awareness of community process and function.  Determination and goal-setting created the path from novice designer at the point of the first interview to seven years later, when managerial responsibility had been assumed.  The diversity in work challenges the individual to improve practice by information gathering and critical analysis of situated activity.


The challenges faced by the individual to accept responsibility for performance leads to a search for knowledgeable networks to facilitate in problem solving.  New perspectives allow the individual to identify alternative solutions to issues faced.  In order to lead, managers are required to envision prospective strategies that enhance group progress.


Although the organisation was seen to correlate well with interest and identity, familial ties were acknowledged to be the main priority.  Marko understood that his value, seen through his skills, were the outcome of personal and professional development making him a prized component of the organisation.  Leaving an organisation was not seen as the end of network connections as a sense of community no longer resides purely within the community.  Companies are seen merely as sources of income.


The survival story - Tero
E.g. an individual with a long history of service to the organisation who had the opportunity to direct his career path, stopping only when preference in working with customer service in-house, and with other organisations, was recognised.  Strong interpersonal skills were developed and substantiated during ownership transitions.


Information and experience is gained from dynamic and knowledgeable peer and customer interaction.  Networks become a source of reference.  With experience and observation, Tero understands that fluency in work depends on a variety of conditions that are beyond an individuals sphere of influence.  Cummulative knowledge incorporates a variety of skills that are often neglected in the support group function, and is especially noticeable during turmoil where transition results in less than successful outcomes.  Commitment to learning is deactivated.


However, when commitment to community and job is high, indications are that learning will proceed with relevant community intervention (e.g. potential to transition).  High mental workload necessitated Tero taking compassionate leave to analyse and develop an interest outside of work.  Despite the many years of experience, leaving the organisation for another is not viewed as appealing.  Building new relationships is considered problematic, and the specific knowledge gained within one community may not be valued at another.  Rather, Tero preferred to be acknowledged by the organisation in the same way that he acknowledges the community and group members.


The readjustment story - Antti
E.g. Antti joined the community in product development and moved to work in specialist sales support by the second interview.  An identifiable skill is Antti's ability and nature in working with people and problem solving.  A comparison between the two jobs indicates that the latter is less cognitively taxing, but involves more consideration of scheduling.


Antti described the process of learning as information gathering from experience, developing new skills and self-verification.  However, Antti views organisational learning as inhibiting and critiques group dissemination process.  Being present when information is dispersed to all groups raises issues in logistics.  Antti's competence as a trainer had not been recognised, thus the benefits and responsibilities for in-house training of group members were under-investigated.


For Antti, work is significant in that it is personally satisfying and provides the means to support a family and hobbies that are regarded as a higher priority.  The only reason expressed for abandoning the community would be for a job that was considered more interesting.  A prevailing pessimistic ambience is a reminder that change has effected a lack of leadership qualities in managers.  Commitment to work extends as far as achieving personal satisfaction unless reciprocal commitment to developing employees builds up trust.


Summary of the findings
Perspectives of learning and development are evaluate of the commitment to career objectives that an individual holds.  Negative outcomes of transition include reduced employee motivation to develop through learning, reflected in overt behaviour.  Perception of role and identity are displayed during interaction.  While organisational change may cause instability, a sense of belonging enhances social and group learning.  As transformation within the community causes corresponding change in an individuals' personal life, goals for learning may alter.


Work identity is constructed from an individuals perception of the role and function that is performed within the community.  Participants offered commited service to the community, and were rewarded commensurately with subject matter expertise and non work-related issues (e.g. location).  Collin proposes that individual work identity is linked to an external identity that may have more significance.


Narratives indicated that a lack of desire to develop professionally emerged as a result of mismanagement.  In spite of negative judgement, a commitment to work ethics was noticeable among the participants and considered "an important definer of their work-related identity" (pg. 9).  Of the four, only Marko considered himself to be extended in a professional capacity by the community.  Identifying with work and skill competencies, maintaining strong links to networks within the community and the profession are core elements in comprehending the nature of work-related identity.  During times of instability, employees emphasise the significance of community membership.


Conclusions
Common themes in this study revolved around the context for learning, commitment to the community, and emerging work-related identity.  Understanding the need for meaningful working practice and the motivation for self-development were also discussed suggesting that developing professional identity and a commitment to the group is tied to learning.  The context in which a group functions, the role an individual plays, clarity of objectives and experience aid in the construction of professional identity and consequent knowledge gathering processes.  Communities that develop committed programs to developing the professional skills of member benefit from progressive learning.


Changes that occur within the community may similarly effect changes on the surrounding environment and are viewed as processes instead of results.  Professional identity is taken from the significance of community membership, the ambience in which interaction is conducted, and the dedication felt towards the community.  Community instability affects individual attachment and performance.  Communities that consider employees holistically enhance an individuals capacity to achieve a better work-life balance.  The community benefits retrospectively when individuals are acknowledged as valued members.  Middle managers are entrusted to observe and make recomendations that lead to the development of ability and proficiency.


Collins suggests further research is conducted on workplace learning and work-related identity as individual narratives are not comprehensive representations, and indicates that several issues are still unknown.  Investigating work-related identity and social learning opens up potential research avenues.  Further discourse provides a larger framework for understanding the processes of work and learning theoretically.

Kyndt, E., Dochy, F. & Nijs, H. (2009). Learning conditions for non-formal and informal workplace learning

Kyndt, E., Dochy, F. and Nijs, H. (2009).  Learning conditions for non-formal and informal workplace learning.  Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(5)  pp369 - 383.  Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/
viewPDF.jspcontentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/
Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0860210501.pdf


Introduction
Owing to rapid change, the concept of educating is no longer left to formal educational institutions.  Organisations have the competitive advantage through workplace learning.  Members are trained on the job which is considerably cheaper than opting for formal training.  It is said that on the job training provides specific skills not fully appreciated in formal training.  Also noted is the lack of insight in students when applying theory to practice, indicating that formal learning cannot anticipate evolutions as the set up takes too long.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs describe informal learning as implicit yet unplanned with unpredictable results.  It is never organised or intentional from the learners' perspective Kyndt et al propose.  Practical experience creates an active learning environment.  In non-formal learning the individual learns through self-motivation or as a by-product of HRD activities.


Theoretical background: learning conditions
Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs refer to Marsick and Watkins who state that organisations facilitate learning through culture, policy and procedure.  It is the reciprocal interplay between organisation and individual that determines learning outcomes.  Emphasis is placed on conditions that make workplace learning possible.  Investigation into factors that influence learning has produced two results.  Factors that stimulate and those that obstruct.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs focus on factors that stimulate learning.


Conditions that were found to have a stimulating effect were categorised as 'context factors' - the learner - and 'learning factors' - the learning process.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs indicate through their review of literature that general conditions that positively influence learning are communication and interaction, cooperation, feedback, evaluation, participation, reflection, coaching and information.


The present study
Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs present their study as an extension of a study carried out by Clauwaert and Van Bree to find suitable indicators for non formal and informal learning that would lead to the creation of an instrument that maps non formal and informal learning.  Learning was divided into six categories:

1. work organisation;
2. internal learning networks;
3. external learning networks;
4. individual learning coaching;
5. individual work coaching;
6. information systems

Kyndt et al focus on the perceptions of the learner to identify conditions of non formal and informal learning.


Research questions
Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs prepared the following to take account of characteristics of personality, profession and organisation "For which groups of employees, based on their personal, professional characteristics and the characteristics of the organisation, are certain learning conditions for non formal and informal learning, present to a higher extent in their work context?"


Method
The sample looked at different aspects of profile.  Linguistic adaptations were made to the questionnaire developed by Clauwaert and Van Bree.  Through analyses of variance, the authors hoped to capture the significant differences displayed.


Results
The authors selected five factors of learning conditions, and employee responses indicate that feedback and knowledge acquisition is high in importance.  New learning approaches and availability of communication tools was identified as second on the list.  Being coached and coaching is third and fourth respectively.  The fifth factor concerns information acquisition.  Different age groups respond differently to learning conditions in feedback, knowledge acquisition and coaching.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs observe that all learning conditions alter incrementally with increased learning in formal education.  All learning conditions resulted in significant differences for employees with different functions.  Seniority resulted in learning conditions that differed except in relation to new learning approaches and communication tools.  Different organisations result in different learning conditions.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs observe that learning conditions in feedback and knowledge acquisition occur most in non-profit organisations.  Conditions of new learning approaches and communication tools occur most in for-profit organisations.  Size of the organisation does not reflect uni-directional tendencies.


Conclusion and discussion
Opportunities for non formal and informal learning indicate different groups can employ different strategies based on the five learning conditions the authors' outline.  The condition 'being coached' is used to highlight clear differences.  The authors suggest that employees at undergraduate level are more likely to receive and benefit from coaching.  Higher levels of education attained by individuals reduce differences within a team.  Employees in for-profit organisations have more access to the conditions 'new learning approach and communication tools' and 'being coached'.  Employees of non-profit organisations have more access to the conditions 'feedback and knowledge acquisition' and in 'coaching others'.  Employees with different functions encounter different learning conditions.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs indicate that the condition 'being coached' is suitable for consideration at managerial level.  Scant amount of literature on non formal and informal learning makes comparison with this research impractical.  Further research is required to verify structure and differences found between groups.


Implications for practice
Improving workplace practices requires reflection on the importance of the learning conditions 'feedback and knowledge acquisition' which the authors state undergirds learning.  Higher levels of education in employees positively improve upon and increase learning conditions.  Employees are less likely to have access to new learning approaches and rely on the organisation for information.