Garavan, T. N. & McCarthy, A. (2003). Collective Learning Processes and Human Resource Development.

Garavan, T. N. and McCarthy, A. (2003).  Collective Learning Processes and Human Resource Development.  Advances in Developing Human Resources, 5(1), pp. 64-83.  Retrieved on April, 4, 2010 from http://adh.sagepub.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/cgi/reprint/5/1/64


Introduction
Literature on collective learning in HRD has gained heightened interest, the authors' state.  Emerging themes include organisational learning, team learning, collective strategic leadership, strategic learning and organisation-led collective learning.  These collective learning processes at theoretical levels indicate that individual learning is not symbolic of the collective - interpreted here to represent interactive learning systems.  It is the examination of characteristics, factors and processes that occur at individual, team and organisational levels.  Organisational-level learning considers the routine and role of culture.  Individual-level learning identifies cognitive and behavioural aspects of self.


The authors' state:

1. differing perspectives on collective learning in HRD has led to fragmented thinking within the research streams;
2. the focus in HRD has been primarily on individual/objectified -level learning, and less so on the emergent and intangible nature of learning;
3. there is a tendency to over-generalise relationships at single-loop learning level when making connections with concepts at different levels;
4. cross-level effects are underestimated when conducting single-level research and suggest future research adopts multi-level learning;
5. individual-level learning constructs the framework from which to understand the behaviour within the collective; and
6. collective learning depends upon the characteristics of the external (organisation) and internal (individual) environment - the preparedness for learning.

Understanding Collective Learning: A Multiplicity of Strands
Multiplicities of collective terms overlap in conceptual meaning.  The authors address some common areas.


Organisational learning
Objective: learning to enhance company action through processes of knowledge gathering and understanding.  Described by the authors as action, reflection and change through the creation of new knowledge and insight.  The effectiveness of organisational-learning is potentially hindered from progress where there are gaps at individual-level learning.


Strategic organisational learning
Strategic learning incorporates two interpretations:

1. learning from experience, sense making as a social process; and
2. learning that is proactive, where specific knowledge gained in real-time is applied to strategic initiatives.

It is thought that strategic learning enhances creativity towards inter-organisational innovation.  Where organisational learning is seen as personal growth in knowledge making, strategic organisational learning produces performance outcomes as a result of individual-level learning.


The learning organisation
Learning in organisations is indicated to have a positive link to performance.  Facilitated learning in organisations helps the company respond more favourably to challenges.  There is an emphasis on the need for literature to establish models and best practices based on idealised and stylised learning organisations that explain and describe organisational phenomena.


Team learning
As the team takes action, it obtains and reflects on feedback, making changes that adapt or improve current working practice.  The results are viewed from an emergent perspective, (where the team is shaped by learning) and from an outcomes perspective.  Team learning does not necessarily have an impact on organisational learning owing to poor communication between teams, poor learning or failure to adapt.  Team learning is more than the aggregate of individual learning - it is an interface between the two that has effects at multiple levels.  


Communities of practice
The focus is on both individual learning and the context of activities.  It is understood that individual learning is valueless to understanding learning in a collective, so there is emphasis on social constructivism.  The challenge is for researchers to understand:

• how social interactions are made; and
• how collective identity emerges.

It is currently understood to be a joint enterprise with a shared repertoire of knowledge and resources that are built up over time.  There is an emphasis on tacit learning that is unstructured and informal, with particular focus on the community.


Collective knowledge, memory and mind
Collective knowledge leads to embedded practices within organisations, expressed with both cognitive and behaviourist processes.  It regulates the way individuals co-operate within the collective.  The team depend upon individual members for acquisition, recall and generation of knowledge executed to support the collective.  The collective mind is seen to be located within interaction, and further literature is required to explain how it is created, sustained or changed.


Collaborative learning
The focus is on learning in collectives that leads to potentially enhanced competitive advantage.  Individuals learn from each other through discussion, reflection and exploration.  The network of social learning incorporates all aspects of organisation - customers, suppliers - characterised by the collective goal.  Individuals bring differences in culture and experience.  Collaborative learning applies individual and collective knowledge.


Collective Learning Processes
Collective learning literature reveals variations in conceptualisation of focus.  Consequently, current literature highlights the tensions and paradox that exist in theory.


Cognitive or behavioral focus
The cognitive focus sees the organisation in a process of evolution, an entity that gains positive results through shared conceptualisation.  The collective cognition is a shared worldview.  The behavioural process reflects the goal oriented and adaptive capacity of the collective.  The desired outcome is behavioural change that positively affects the collectives' performance index.


Functional or dysfunctional outcomes
Although collective learning produces functional outcomes, literature is bringing in to focus some dysfunctional outcomes.  Consistency in individual and collective goals is not sustained.  Significant to this is the relationship to power.  Negative beliefs disable contribution and open communication.  Build up of stress and anxiety affect behavioural and cognitive outcomes.


Planned and managed or unplanned and emergent
Collective learning is seen as planned, structured and organised through embedded systems that guide future learning.  It can also be seen as unplanned, organic and iterative meaning that organisations can be hard to train.  A long-term and adaptive approach is required.


Individual learning within the collective or collective level learning
There is interest in understanding how the individual transfers learning to the collective, specifically focusing on individual characteristics as behaviour and cognition levels transform.  Personality and competency have been identified as indicators to assess the impact an individual has on the collective.  Academics debate a starting point - can collectives actually learn?


Prescriptive and normative or explanatory and descriptive
Successful implementation designed to promote learning will result in a successful collective.  Current literature explains and describes organisational phenomena without prescription.  The authors indicate that this gap in knowledge between academic and practitioner exists as HRD practitioners show preference for understanding the process as it relates to achieving and sustaining the competitive advantage rather than understanding how the concepts can be applied as strategy.


A Typology of Collective Learning in Organisations
The collective learning process requires shared meaning and understanding.  The constant state of evolution is a result of the collective and their context.  Organisational culture and structure influence the context of individual learning.  Integrated contexts connects individuals through multiple links to knowledge, information and viewpoints.  Experience motivates the learning of team members, and viable open communication depends on frequency, depth and quality of dialogue.  Strategic organisational learning focuses on collective learning that can be codified and enhances the organisations learning effectiveness.  Team learning involves sharing acquired and evolving best practice guidelines.  Working and learning are interrelated and compatible.  Through collective learning, the organisation is better suited to adapt to external environments.  Difficulties lie in managing the emerging nature of the collective.


The Research And Practice Agenda For HRD
The research agenda
An analysis of measurement strategies is required to guard against misrepresentation.  Intangibles, represented by the level of interaction or co-ordination within the collective, are to be considered.  Literature states that relevant measures to observe phenomena also address the theoretical distinction in praxis.  Constructs and concepts are hypothetical's, while levels of measurement are derived from actual data sources.  Researchers consider the structural and functional characteristics of learning at individual level and how it relates to collective improvements.  It is thought that research will develop the HRD role to facilitate collective learning and by exploring styles of influence and strength.


The practice agenda
Mentoring and coaching are examples of induction and social networking that facilitate collaborative learning.  It is suggested that HRD create infrastructures, systems and resources to serve collective learning.  The starting point has not been determined:

• focus on individual-led learning; or
• focus on organisational-led learning.

Organisations will differ through conceptualising collective learning.


Articles in this Issue
Heraty and Morley are used to provide a model that introduces organisation-led learning as a means of understanding collective learning.  Shared vision and communication are key to facilitating collective learning.  Hierarchy is reduced and job definitions become broader.  Sadler-Smith introduces intuition as an individual and non-conscious way of learning and relates it to the collective learning process.  It is the capacity to articulate tacit knowledge for the benefit of the organisation.  McCarthy and Garavan stress the importance of higher-order thinking and active control as being fundamental to routine and habitual behaviour.  Teams with higher metacognitive function are better at problem-solving facilitating the learning environment.  Jorgensen and Keller focus on 'negotiated identities' that provides a basis of past and future and the nexus of multiplicity in membership.  They argue the importance of language as it is used to discuss informal and tacit learning.  Ardichvili suggest a model that shows three barriers to online practice and sharing - interpersonal skills, technology and culture.  Areas known to have significant effect on collaborative learning.  Storberg-Walker advises that applied theory-building bridges the divide between concept and practice.  It is argued that Wenger's communities of practice face obstacles when applied, and research should focus on power and political play.  Gubbins and MacCurtain indicate that trust is significant when developing and sustaining the networks that support collective learning.  The focus moves from the individual to the collective.  Cross and Armstrong view learning networks through the collective vision of women.  Without access to relevant networks, they establish their own and learn individually.  As the network grows, learning becomes collective and anticipatory.  It is suggested that the greater the amount of interaction, the more tacit learning is shared.


Conclusion
The emphasis on collective learning is the synergy and advantage of the collective.  The processes are considered to be dynamic and highlight the importance of social networking.  Still under consideration is the notion that collective learning is not just organic, but can be developed and nourished.  HRD face certain challenges in accepting their role and function within the organisation while still creating the framework that facilitates individual motivation and commitment.


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