Scott, W. and Gough, S. (2006). Sustainable Development within UK Higher Education: Revealing Tendencies and Tensions.

Scott, W. and Gough, S. (2006).  Sustainable Development within UK Higher Education: Revealing Tendencies and Tensions.  Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 30(2), pp. 293 - 305.  Retrieved on September 18, 2010 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03098260600717398


Introduction
Scott and Gough discuss the way in which the targets for education implemented at the Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro 1992 were relevant to the needs of higher education.  Their paper reviews how higher education (UK) has evolved post-Summit.


Sustainable Development in UK Higher Education: A Snapshot
Funding councils actively promote and support ESD and it was suggested that higher education contribute as:

• hubs of learning and research; formative support for leaders of the future;
• centres of commerce;
• developers of the community.

Associated bodies (e.g. Environmental Association for Universities and Colleges) are heavily invested in combining both environmental management and sustainability to form business development models that institutions are capable of implementing (e.g. transport, consumption).  The Higher Education Funding Council oversees good management practice initiatives, and is in partnership with four universities.  Their research has four main categories:

1. building level benchmarking of energy and water consumption;
2. developing case studies of best practice in environmental performance improvement in HE;
3. identifying and testing standardised measures for procurement, waste and other functions; and
4. developing the capacity of staff with environment-related responsibilities to achieve positive environmental change within their institutions through action workshops and other means.

Scott and Gough observe that successful outcomes of this project have been primarily related to managing the environment in higher education than with curriculum development.  The authors propose that implementing both environmental management and curriculum together present challenges of its own.  Ashley states one reason this could be is linked to individuals possessing RPL skills in numeracy, IT and communication, but no key skill has been identified as understanding sustainability.

Environmental managers are not required to focus on curriculum, and academics are time-constrained.  Tensions erupt as a consequence.  Tacit knowledge reveals while teaching or researching ESD is professional choice, group ethic or value is against a forced curriculum change in support of academic freedom.  "Determinist curriculum interventions can have a negative effect" (pg. 4).  An HE21 initiative asked UK institutions of higher learning specifically what different professions would need to know to maintain sustainable development, but no change came from this.  Legislation in environmental standards becomes more stringent as organising bodies do their best to ensure measures are based on global opinion.

The UK have adopted a curriculum toolkit on learning for sustainable development, a collaboration between HEPS and the University of Antofagasta, Chile.  Some of the concepts included in the toolkit are:

• as noted previously, universities are hubs of learning and research and act as key intermediaries between community and sustainable development;
• the Triple P attitude towards sustainable development is overly simplistic and requires five types of capital (i.e. natural, human, social, manufactured, financial);
• twelve criteria stemming from the fivefold capital are adduced to project a vision of a sustainable society; and
• learning must be delivered in a particular manner to be supportive of sustainable development; holistic, learner centered education binds social, environmental and economic environments to draw on positive attributes of location and individual; focus is on identified outcomes; it can apply to a range of complexity.

The first of seven stages in the toolkit requires a student profile and represents the student's perspective of the world.  Student identity (e.g. profession, affiliation) is the core and behaviour adjusts as it moves through outer rings and back again.  Interaction that occurs less frequently form the outer rings.  Second, program content is listed in a way that identifies the skills and knowledge a student requires to fulfill the learning contract.  Third, evaluations are based on the twelve criteria of capital.  Fourth, personal learning outcomes depend on evaluations in third stage (e.g. goal setting, clarity of understanding).  Fifth, the strategy for implementation.  Sixth is an embedded point of reflection when the program design is presented to faculty members.

The context in which learning takes place is a determining factor in guiding progress with pragmatism, as Scott and Gough indicate challenges are almost certain when a lack of common interpretation introduces inertia.  The design strategy of the toolkit is founded on natural sciences and economics, consequently learning has more focus on managerial aspects rather than on emancipation and examples are:

• a target population of graduates and professionals;
• emphasis on measurable learning outcomes using the twelve criteria instead of through the pedagogy of self-discovery;
• sustainable development arguably relies on the fivefold capital, or UNESCOs strategy for teaching the strategy of making long-term decisions based on our ecology and the economy;
• learning as the source of achieving sustainable development rather than as an integrated aspect.

In response to feedback, HEPS published a booklet on the attributes of good practice when integrating sustainable development.  The practitioners guide facilitates the identification of aspects in ESD.  As there are no models to provide examples, the booklets' aim is to provide a balance between guidance and spoon-feeding that generates confidence in ability and the skill to begin, belief in themselves and trust in the process.

Developing the Higher Education Curriculum: Further Issues

Despite the progress made with the toolkit, there remain three outstanding issues:

1. Extensive budgets are attractive but not always necessary, Scott and Gough state.  Guided learning to act in ecologically sustainable ways is required to support and/or enhance static knowledge.
2. Opinions of the teacher might not be shared by the student (i.e. what the teacher considers important may be in direct opposition to student opinion).  The skills students bring are either developed or modified.  Learning objectives are clearly stated in the toolkit.
3. Strategy for change must take account of paideia as not all learning is formal or expected.

Observations are that the nature of the booklet is inspired by a conservative and nurturing shared worldview and supported by cultural theory.  As long as society is inexorably integrated through technology (e.g. between private and public, local and national) tensions and diversity will continue to exist.

The toolkit acknowledges this dilemma and offers various entry points to initiate course content that reflects the range of values students and institutions present.  The paradox is the less stimulation the values receive, the less likely natural growth occurs.  Success or failure of such initiatives is highly dependent on the institutions' responsibilities (e.g. financial, patriarchal).  Scott and Gough argue that the integration of sustainable development and learning may have been pushed into the background owing to poor articulation, and misrepresented by hidden individual agendas.

Managing the institutions' environment has thus far proven less challenging, as any change for sustainable development has the potential to make a significant impact on energy consumption, creating a savings.  Scott and Gough clearly state that although the toolkit has the flexibility to address these issues at metatheoretical level, investigative analysis on issues pertaining to sustainable development remain secondary.

Research and teaching at some universities are two areas heavily invested in sustainable development.  Geography departments have been examples of key research activity around the globe.  Scott and Gough indicate that at the time of publication there appeared to be no potential models that used university life to integrate commerce, research and activity as envisaged by UNESCO.

Universities are memes and thus, interconnected at national level.  The relationship the institution has with the community is subject to the Law of Cause and Effect.  The negative association with sustainable development is its perceived expense that is assumed to benefit only the institution, in favour of ongoing projects.  Initiatives abound but do not constitute, nor have they been linked with, a national strategy.  Scott and Gough promote initiatives such as the one proposed by HEP that encompass the seven stage approach and fivefold capital model, and question other research agendas.

Learning as Sustainable Development

Sustainable development reflects lifelong learning and is unlikely to gain public approval if teachers of ESD are not exemplary role models.   In this instance, constructive action is potentially more valuable than constructive feedback.  Progress is necessarily contingent upon the time it takes to link ongoing institutional and professional commitments.

Viewing evolution as a progression of tiny steps towards a greater good, recognises a naturally occurring sustainable phenomena.  Experience and confidence, or single loop learning, occurs according to independent stages of personal development.  Failures are viewed as experience gained, thus professional disappointments can be retained at a rational level without upsetting equilibrium.  Sharing is crucial in order for others to learn from experience by proxy.  Scott and Gough propose that leadership and creativity include the following as priorities:

• commissioning research into learning difficulties facing ESD, and the potential relationship between lifelong learning and sustainable development;
• national planning and strategy to cross-reference domain development through networks and rpl;
• situation monitoring and analysis of proposals for learning in sustainable development;
• strong professional networks to encourage widespread discourse; and
• promotion of leader contributions to international developments.

Two items relating to education were mentioned at the World Summit.  The Millennium Development Goals and the need for a civil society movement to increase national commitment.  The 6th session of UNCSD issued seven areas in need of priority action:

1. clarifying and communicating sustainable development concepts and key messages;
2. reviewing national education policies and reorienting practice, including teacher education and higher education teaching and research;
3. incorporating education within national sustainable development strategies and planning processes;
4. promoting sustainable consumption and production through education;
5. promoting investment in education;
6. identifying and sharing innovative practice;
7. raising public awareness.

A UN backed agenda proposing a decade of ESD highlighted the role universities have to offer.  The perspective taken teaches students to conduct their own explorations into the subject and acquire their own information, which is a more sustainable activity than teaching the subject itself.  Scott and Gough propose that if sustainable development can be learned, then an objective must be established to consistently remain in focus.  Goals achieved from learning may not receive recognition as there is no contextual authority.  The authors are of the opinion that certain perspectives may not be congruent in other domains.  Simply put, it's easier to release preconceptions and move forward into the unknown.

Issues range from outright denial "Problem?  What problem?" to resignation "Humanity incapable of necessary change" (pg. 11).  The authors suggest using a metatheoretical approach, which they term 'the clumsy approach' as a wide acceptance of knowledge can be obfuscated by stakeholder needs (e.g. stakeholders expect definitive answers in order to promote their cause).  Issues relating to sustainable development stem from fear of the unknown.  Uncertainty is causing 'analysis paralysis'.  Dominant roles can only be achieved with clear and open communication.

Scott and Gough indicate that the clumsy way is a heuristic they use themselves as a means of unpacking problems.  Categorisation leads to simplification and the clumsy way provides security in constant evaluation (i.e. situation monitoring).

Concluding comments

The way in which knowledge is categorised (i.e. policy-making in ministries) is only a simplification in conceptual articulation rather than a diminishing of problems.  "For example, the economy, the environment and society are not separable, and sustainable development cannot arise from the independent insights of economists, environmental scientists and social scientists, working with different assumptions and methodologies" (pg. 13).

In closing, the authors discuss shared worldview and the subsequent actions of humanity as indicative of how the human-environment relationship is co-evolving.  Learning content is significant as it is a deciding factor in gaining skills for further endeavour.  Scott and Gough propose that these are factors fundamental to thinking about applying sustainable development in higher education, and suggest that progress will be made in conjunction with contextual and cultural filtering.

Jickling, B. and Wals, A. E. J. (2008). Globalisation and environmental education: looking beyond sustainable development

Jickling, B. and Wals, A. E. J. (2008).  Globalisation and environmental education: looking beyond sustainable development.  Journal of Curriculum Studies, 40(1), pp. 1 - 21.  Retrieved on September 18, 2010 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220270701684667


Globalisation and neo-liberalism
Development in the corporate world has instigated changes that have had a ripple effect around the world.  Government and corporate strategy are inextricably integrated meaning that a rise in ideologies which are embedded in commerce supports our networks of communication.  It is these corporate-centred ideologies that heavily influence and significantly correlate to the reforms required in education.  Jickling and Wals identify corporations that sponsor institutions of education by donating teaching aids designed to embed product awareness.


Gough inspires all by seeking means to sustain local culture in favour of mass homogeneity.  The World Bank are known for introducing educational formats that produce knowledge workers who sustain local markets.  It can be said that education and corporations are looking for a sustainable partnership.


Organisations are adapting to environmental demand by developing and sustaining social awareness of ESD.  Entities that are governed by people, planet and profit (i.e. Triple-P bottom line).  Organisations are developing customised programs for human resource in order to achieve this objective, and have created an external examining body to ensure standards are maintained or surpassed (e.g. ISO14001).  Education for environmental support systems relies on subsidies to fund research and serves as an example for institutions that have value, a presence and benefit society.


Jickling and Wals investigate how ESD as captured by UNESCO indicates their rise in power to be successor of environmental education.  Concerns lie in the integration of globalisation and neo-liberalism that transcends mainstream education.


Converting environmental education to education for sustainable development
Waks proposes that globalisation has steered a way forward for transformation in subject matter, pedagogy, technology, COP, and delivery.  While there are difficulties and challenges, supporters keep faith that good change comes from the stimulation of tension and uncertainty.  UNESCO programs (e.g. Education for All, MDG, ESD) are regarded as opportunities for sustainable change.


Much has happened since ESD was introduced in 1987 culminating in sustained effort to transform an educational system that educates for sustainable development.  Jickling and Wals observe that critics have been waylaid by the lack of buzzwords in Resolution 57/254 that have been a source of comfort to many.  As with many researchers, the authors note that a lack of discourse has led to incomplete definitive descriptions that reveal the broadness of concept. Without widespread acceptance of legitimate interpretations, rejection of proposals is to be expected.  A lack of clarity in direction leads to confusion and hostile activity.  Instead sustainable reform should be regarded as new packaging for environmental education at national level.


The dysfunction and potential source of resistance to the development of sustainable policy stems from the considerable amount of pressure on people who teach to restructure professional practice in order to contribute towards ESD.


Jickling and Wals have identified anomalies associated with UNESCO and IUCN and their agenda for sustainable development.  In establishing their understanding of the problem, the authors present heuristic practice that evolved as part of their learning process.


Anomalies
Jickling and Wals understand diversity through policy that either follows, or is followed, by innovation.  Policies on lifelong learning and aptitude are sourced from national level debate and are thought of as policy that leads innovation.  Similarly, ESD is nationally driven thus the authors propose this as the reason for resistance to change.  Workshops and seminars facilitate thought provoking exchanges that are discursively additive.


Leading questions were asked of participants of the ESDebate (e.g. should ESD be abolished?).  More than half the respondents affirmed that ESD should be abandoned.  Jickling and Wals' analysis of this reaction suggests there may be confusion about the purpose of ESD as it relates to environmental education.  Critics view ESD as a form of bullying that educates and redirects behaviour towards a single objective.  Their locus of reasoning lies in individuality and diversity that directs output towards self-reflection and determination to create an established individualistic path towards better living.


Furthermore, Jickling and Wals state that there is no global heuristic that will serve as a model for the planet, for ESD represents a multi-level and trans-dimensional concept that is interpreted and re-interpreted through national and international holism.  "Democracy depends on differences, dissonance, conflict, and antagonism, so that deliberation is radically indeterminate" (pg. 6).  Conflicts reveal mounting pressure in the exploration of ESD as individuals place different levels of significance upon the Triple P and 3E (i.e. efficiency, environment, equity).  Tension is a prerequisite to learning.


Jickling and Wals track the events of the 2002 World Summit where little to nothing was said about ESD and the focus remained on how to prepare education for sustainable development, how to set benchmarks and standards, and how to build control mechanisms that assess progress.  The Summit necessitated participants to start implementing, instead of using the time ineffectively talking.  Critics propose failure in this approach as educators may only be capable of creating an illusion.  Instead, educators should be seen as agents moving towards a globally driven economy.  Jickling and Wals acknowledge the discomfort surrounding the ESD agenda.  They draw attention to other transitions occurring as a result of global agendas.


Education and sustainable development: suitable alliances?
While some see ESD as an opportunity to infuse individuality through personal sense-making, with the potential to highlight areas under-represented in curriculum, others maintain an anxiety stemming from chronic analysis of ESD ideology.  Sauve has interjected a soothing analysis of the patterns in environmental education and concludes that ESD is only one agenda out of the fifteen that environmental education is nurturing.  Agenda 21 is a pragmatic approach to adapting to the "global political agenda" (pg. 7).


Multiple entry points in ESD allow self-reflection to discern ambiguity through individual perspective.  Reflection points include the way in which education is perceived, and how it is portrayed; the definition of an educated society; and the role the individual expects to play.


Conceptions of education
The aims for ESD cannot be discursively debated until the concept of education has been explored.  Tension emerged when scholars analysed 20th century theory and its dominant tendencies, and noted that new perspectives were developing towards the close of the century.  Tension was caused by opposing views concerning the nature of education.  Jickling and Wals suggest we think of education as "transmissive" (pg. 8), meaning that skills, knowledge and values are transmitted to students.  Participants are steered towards a committed objective via a closed learning process that affords bi-directional communication between master and apprentice.  From a transmissive perspective, education is a tool through which to deliver messages to open minds and examples can be found in government, industry, and special interest groups.


Some research analysts prefer to view education as more transactive and transformative with a distinct sympathy for social constructivism and cognitivism.  Social networking shapes learning through translational learning and diversity of cultural perspectives.  Education that leads to transformation is open and self-directed.  Delivery of static knowledge is the platform used to integrate individual knowledge with group knowledge, making tacit knowledge explicit in the curriculum and in students.  Therefore, environmental education defines the perception from which individuals view the world.


Jickling and Wals state that education concerns not only social reproduction but about transcending social norms and behaviours without resorting to dictating alternative lifestyles.


There exists debate whether social reproduction or transformation is part of education and is reflected in the educators professional attitude.  By placing social reproduction in context, individuals maintain participation levels and arguably demonstrate a responsible and committed attitude born of obedience and deference.  Whereas social transformation is an expression of education that facilitates and requires active participation in community decision-making processes, displaying democratic processes that lead to more than electing governments.  The more varied and diverse an individuals' network is, the more stimulation there is to respond to.


Democracy should be regarded as the balance of an individual and her sense of belonging to the community, that instills the value of culture and autonomy.  Therefore, Jickling and Wals propose that integration of ESD and deterministic or exclusive cognition cannot be reconciled with international policy statements. Instead the authors envisage that educated citizens live democratic practice within a nurturing society which is similar to many others, but represents a unique local flavour.


The heuristic Jickling and Wals propose is based on a two-axes structure that frames and reframes perspectives on ESD.  While they acknowledge that a two-axis heuristic cannot capture a comprehensive view of the breadth and depth, it serves its purpose as an analytical tool.


Big Brother sustainable development
Quadrant 1 of the two-axes structure represents the authoritarian and hierarchical element of ESD, and which Jickling and Wals state is achieved by control to eliminate deviants.  Consistent and unambiguous standards (e.g. ISO 14001, ISO2007, IFOAM, FSC) are adhered to implicitly to sustain direction.


Education is used for implementing a set strategy, the standards for which correlate to ideologies that represent a segment of society.  However, such arbitrary measures meet with resistance from environmental educators who interpret education altogether differently.  "While education can also be thought of as a process that can enable social transformation (as would, for example, be described in varying degress in Quadrant IV space), critics find it anathema that education should serve such pre-determined ends" (pg. 12).


Indoctrination brings its own issues.  Implanting ideology is counter-productive in education for personal development, as transformation is the result of holistically training minds to develop analytical skills and insight rather than narrowing focus to content.  Jickling and Wals argue that some educators supported by global standards (e.g. UNESCO, IUCN) who rationally propose adopting ESD as "it conforms to the aspirations of many non-educators who set policy agendas and control funding opportunities" (pg. 13).  As Agenda 21 has inter-government approval, educators have implented the agenda as support for their own cause to address ESD.  From this perspective Jickling and Wals argue the Fundamental Programme Principles of the newly developing University of the Arctic may also be regarded as authoritarian, and thus deterministic.  "While 'sustainable development' is a social construct that warrants study, it may not be so important that it should be elevated to the status of privileged doctrine" (pg. 13).  


With a view to transformation, deterministic doctrines are inclined to generate resistance to ESD.  Therefore allowing personal diversity as a means to sustain and maintain sense-making, identity, and developmental progress, creates naturally occurring overt personal behaviour supportive of ESD.  Reflexion is stimulated by a multitude of perspectives.  Transmission is more readily accepted as a result of preparation and clear, bi-directional understanding of objectives.


Dobson's research in 1996 revealed more than 300 definitions to the term sustainable development.  Jickling and Wals state that after a decade of combining research there are more meanings with more divergence than was previously recognised by transdimensional organisations (e.g. global organisations, non-governmental organisations, national governments) suggesting that it may be neither desireable, nor possible to create one single understanding.


Furthermore, Jickling and Wals state that this perspective can only be realised if goverments and their affiliations provide environmental leadership.  In addition, epistemic values that underlie the notion of governments projecting visionary direction generate skepticism that may be the result of prior incompetence and miscommunication.


While it may be easy to  denounce transmissive and deterministic goals, much of the literature available is written by people who have themselves been educated in this manner and is viewed as the foundation of experience for those committed to transformation and reformation in pedagogy.  Individuals who were challenged by the structure of a system.


Limited freedom - freedom bounded by sustainable development
Quadrants II and III create the space for new meaning and active citizenry.  Freedom has a framework that encompasses the language of ESD that some may agree with, yet Jickling and Wals suggest it may be a false freedom.


Very often educators are persuaded to work from these quadrants for pragmatic reasons.  Governmental support funds the educational objective, and the sustainable development agenda lacks coherent definition leading to questionable and/or unstable characteristics that may be ignored.  It is the characteristics that go ignored that become the most problematic, Jickling and Wals argue, as a false consensus meant for global readership creates divergence and obfuscates contextual differences.  When characteristics are revealed, orientation towards ESD may lead to transformative learning specifically through existentialism.


Discourse represents the reflexion and care that bonds segments of society who look for common terminology with which to debate environmental issues compassionately.  Different or parallel views causes dissonance which stimulates learning.  Jickling and Wals view the dispute as an exercise in observation.  Emerging knowledge is not restricted to high socio-economic regions and the potential for anyone to present sound arguments is at hand.  Failure to do so may result in Orwellian conditions.


To understand the paradox of sustainable development, it is necessary to know that range of thought must be diminished and this is accomplished by measuring the positive and negative of meanings and creating personal balance adjusted and reflected in overt behaviour (e.g. war=peace).  Hence diversity can be viewed as a measure slightly off balance from personal standard.  The significance of knowing diversity reveals the substance of personal good and wrong, therefore it may become impossible to counteract what is socially and temporally unacceptable.


The following examples serve to highlight the authors' concerns.  In Northern Canada there is ongoing controversy between two groups in the community.  One task force protects the ecological balance of natural wildlife, and the other developed to uphold the right to mine to address unemployment and related issues.  While the cause for both groups lay in sustainable development for the community, public backing created two different and opposing representations of the meaning.


Similarly, ESKOM, South Africa's electricity supply board seek projections for the future that take account of supply an demand, however Price proposes that organisational focus is on energy production rather than on Earth.  Ideology is contradicted and the premise of dominion is subjugated.


Research in developing terminology to cover current awareness of sustainable development has been almost exclusively undertaken by the private sector.  Jickling and Wals wonder how influential the economic sector has been in guiding ecological perspective for a sustainable future; and why governments and leaders of industry support sustainable development despite confusion in meaning?


Chomsky, author of Manufacturing Consent, reveals the diversionary tactics (e.g. FIFA World Cup, Wimbledon, Tour de France) governments use to distract the public from issues.  With critical public scrutiny averted, government generates breathing space required for analysis and problem solving.  It is proposed that sustainable development is a similar diversion.


Research on structuring ESD by Smyth proposed the need for educators to come together to discuss the action that sustains the concept, without the need for labeling, unanimously agreed upon that best captures the commitment and imagination of a potential future for education.  Smyth was interested in developing communication skills that represent the depth of maturity conveyed in respectful dissensus between warring factions (e.g. environmental educators vs. advocates of ESD).


Scott states that choice within ESD is free of government policy so that educators and educating bodies have the freedom to structure their work within the framework of their own conceptions, trials and successes.  It is not an option to do nothing he states, and shows concern for schools who ignore ESD.  His top four responsibilities undertaken by educators are:

1. To facilitate learner development in order to make sustainable development have personal meaning;
2. To understand that diversity at microcosmic dysfunction is also felt at macro level;
3. To sustain interest and demonstrate effective learning principles through bi-directional communication; and 
4. To encourage learners to maintain situation awareness, individually and socially, and to keep options open.

Enabling thought and action: beyond sustainable development
Quadrant IV projects a future based on active citizenry and suggests possibilities that extend beyond sustainable development which should be seen as part of human evolutionary processes.  Concepts that form part of current discourse are all stepping stones for guiding future direction.


Smyths' interest in language reveals the need to incorporate a sense of inclusivity when communicating, and for environmental learning to accept sustainability so that we can acknowledge it as a social construct and not as the objective or end-play for education.

Walters, S. (2010). 'The planet will not survive if it's not a learning planet': sustainable development within learning through life

Walters, S. (2010).  'The planet will not survive if it's not a learning planet': sustainable development within learning through life.  International Journal of Lifelong Education, 29(4), pp. 427-436.  Retrieved on October 18, 2010 from http://ejscontent.ebsco.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/ContentServer.aspx?target=http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface%3Fcontent%3Da923422231%26format%3Dpdf%26magic%3Debscohostejs||AA3D3EFB68C36A3B40C78D54581474B7%26ft%3D.pdf%26userIP%3D139.86.13.152

Walters offers a contemporary critique of Learning through Life which she says is a report to influence UK practitioners and decision makers.  While the report offers nothing out of the ordinary, the practical aspects offer considerable opportunity for reflection as new methods are applied and refined.

Introduction
The combined effects of climate, political and economical upheaval at the turn of the century has thrown the spotlight on the focus of lifelong learning in the report, as it commenced investigations at the end of an economic boom and was completed during the sharpest point of a recession.

Sustainable development
Walters infers that there is lack of clarity in the term sustainable development and questions the scope and breadth of definition (e.g. does it include more than climate and environment, is it sustainability for the UK alone or for the planet).  Holistically the report refers to the accountability of each individual to be financially aware by equating consumption with need, indicating climate control and change in lifestyles correlate.  Citizens are required to shift from understanding and being adaptable to being proactive about shaping the future, and should consider themselves global citizens.  Walters states that takes sustainable development to mean more than environmental sustainability.

Crisis?  What crisis?
Walter indicates a serious lack of attention to detail in the report in clarifying current economic and environmental crisis as the beginning sees the issues as a temporary phase soon to be over, yet further along indicates a need for long term re-structuring.  She cites from Wallerstein who argues from the perspective of historical patterns of capitalism that this is a deep structural crisis that can be amended to form similar hierarchical systems as present, that do not alleviate polarisation or exploitative attributes, or it can be changed to suit a more egalitarian society.

Wallenstein proposes the need to integrate political choices with moral preference, although the situation is made confusing as it is unstable.  He provides practical advice about the steps that individuals should be applying that will culminate in a change of philosophy and approach to lifelong learning.  He proposes that discourse on future world system and strategy should be debated by every individual as a matter of course, the details of which are subject to personal life choices.  His argument infers that by doing so, we begin to negate inequalities of gender, race or class, and religion.

Walters makes a distinction between literature that critiques capitalism and those that are a critical analysis.  She proposes that critiques make links between socio-economic factors and adult education and so work within the system to improve or reform, whilst a critical analysis provides the theory of change.

Sustainable development can no longer be an issue to dabble in, Walters states, but a real need to forge through environmental damage and displaced corporate responsibility.  She identifies a curious lack of urgency in the report as to the strategy for change in either the UK or world.

Sustainable development across the life span
The report looks at the four stages of development each individual goes through and suggests more emphasis is placed on engaging adults through education, advice and guidance.  Walters argues the paradoxical issues of lifelong learning are related to changing demographics.  For example, children aged between birth and fourteen in Brazil make up 28% of the population while in the UK its 18%.  This is a challenge for some researchers in countries where history and tradition is not commensurate with the ideology of imported literature and practice.  However, Walters states that there are some circumstances that could be enhanced by implementing the four life stages of development in curriculum.

The pandemic proportions of HIV/AIDS is prevalent in rural communities of the Eastern Cape which means that lives revolve around caring for those in ill-health.  Grandparents work to support children and grandchildren so different support systems are required.  The definitions of adult education and student also have implications.  Walters states that mature students are those who carry financial and social responsibilities and have gained complex experience. She questions how appropriate the content of adult education would be for the children who have become heads of household and for all intents and purposes provide the same function.  She warns against rushing to implement foreign pedagogy without first considering the full implications of initiating action.

Life-deep learning
Walters notes the report has not included the concept of life-deep learning, which is the re-connect to spiritual support during times of significance.  The importance of bringing self into balance has become increasingly popular in adult education curriculum.  Spirituality and religion are two approaches that facilitate the holistic efforts of education towards a sense of freedom and equality.  She discusses the meaning perspective that can be gained for an older generation who face aging or poor health with trepidation.

Sustainable development - globally separate or interconnected?
Walters describes the report as inward-looking and does not support global sustainability.  Motivation to increase national ability to compete in a global arena is the priority.  Walters questions this strategy from the perspective of global sustainability, and states that further investigation and debate for alternatives should be developed.

Chapter two of the report states that social dysfunction stems from inequality which affects performance in education. A priority of adult education is to enable individual solidarity that transcends class, gender and other issues that potentially lead to reducing inequality.  Accepting each other for who we are is significant in building relationships that stem from equality.

Walters expresses surprise that with colonial history a large part of heritage, UK readers are not encouraged to feel more affinity to global citizenry.  While active participation is vital to the nation, it is less significant beyond its borders.  She suggests this perspective is narrow and not in keeping with Paul Belanger whom she cites "the planet will not survive if it is not a learning planet" (pg. 8).

Individual and collective learning
Walters believes there is merit to a citizens' curriculum expressed in the report as individual capacity to establish well-being.  The curriculum design has been sourced from transcripts of the inquiry and not from extensive research.  With lifelong learning a tool to make meaning of, adapt to and shape change, these ideas are meant to be a springboard for debate and development.  The potential for increasing community bonds, and raising individual and collective talent is high.

The report states that tensions in individual and group learning can be alleviated from community projects.  Walters proposes that further instances of applying greening systems could transpire if consumption and transport were included and used as models in global referencing.  The report makes clear that a learning philosophy is needed as aspirations are seen as too low and stems from the need to develop a different culture and climate for learning.  Walters states that this is the result of front-load approach to education that is prevalent internationally.  Champions of and for education are needed.

Walters notes that no financial or budget plan to incorporate a citizens curriculum was proposed.  She makes the link to local learning ecology found in Chapter nine where the community have developed local colleges of higher education, authorities, museums, sports councils, libraries, and employment networks.

Joined up approaches to lifelong learning
A multi-level and transdimensional perspective of budget, strategy, initiation and observation is required to sustain a philosophy that supports life-wide and lifelong learning which has been clearly stated in the report.  It proposes that local authorities be given more authority that reflects the strategy of developed role models at national level.  As this strategy has been implemented previously, the question remains what will mitigate circumstance to prevent successful outcomes this time.  Was research undertaken to determine cause, and does it support implementation strategy?

Similarly, questions are raised as the report proposes additional tools to improve practice.  Walters indicates that it is not clear whether detailed research has taken into account inhibiting factors, and suggests that the structure of qualifications and accreditations in the UK should be regarded as an opportunity for collaboration in education, practice, training and development.  The National Qualifications Framework of South Africa has worked to accomplish this task and serves as a role model for systems that encourage collaboration and cohesion.

Information gleaned from current practice and tradition can reveal insight to understand the social bonds that make up these constructs.  Full and holistic understanding must take into consideration the economic and political factors of an era.

Towards a conclusion
The report is intended for policy-makers and practitioners in the UK and encapsulates initiatives taken from the broad-based inquiry.  Innovation in integrating lifelong learning through lifespan has emerged as a result of pushing forward an agenda for individual and collective lifelong learning as a means to engage in and support sustainable development.  The report is more of a critique than an analysis that predicts alternative methods of practice for business and education.

Walters re-iterates that the report is not out of the ordinary, and should be regarded as contemporary measures to sustain what is rather than progress towards what could be.  This structure provides the support to encourage the required discourse and debate when trialling new methods that do progressively evolve to more sustainable practice.


Study: China and Britain lead global clean-energy efforts
China and Britain are leading the world's clean-energy efforts, with the U.S. and Japan trailing, according to a study. Britain spent $29.30 per metric ton of carbon emissions on clean-energy technologies, China spent $14.20 per metric ton and the U.S. spent at a rate of $5.10. China led in absolute spending, pouring $35 billion into clean-energy systems in 2009 -- almost twice as much as the U.S. spent on clean tech in the same period.Google/Agence France-Presse (10/19)

Chansomsak, S. and Vale, B. (2008). The Buddhist approach to education: an alternative approach for sustainable education

Chansomsak, S. and Vale, B. (2008).  The Buddhist approach to education: an alternative approach for sustainable education.  Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 28(1), pp. 35 - 50.  Retrieved on September 18, 2010 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02188790701850063

"This article aims to explore one current Thai educational practice that presents the possibility of responding to sustainability concepts via culturally sensitive education.  The practice is based on the three Buddhist principles of learning: sila sikkha (moral conduct); samadhi sikka (mind training); and panna sikkha (wisdom development)" (Chansomsak & Vale, 2008).

Sustainable education: learning for sustainability

Educational reform takes into consideration the significant correlation between humanity and ecology.  Environmental, global, developmental and peace education, implemented in the 70s and widely adopted by the 80s, is gaining more currency since the 1992 Earth Summit, re-iterated at the 2002 World Summit and developed into a Decade of Education for Sustainable Development to run from 2005 - 2014.

Terminology is creating some confusion as to how sustainable development may be defined.  Education For Sustainability (EFS) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) are concerned with educational philosophy, and propose the nature and purpose of education.  Chansomsak and Vale define sustainable education as activity related to education that is for (purpose), about (content), and as (an integrative or whole process of) sustainability.  Sustainability can then be said to be a dynamic and flexible system that connects, applies to its context, is inclusive as a naturally occurring outcome, enables each domain to integrate to form a whole, and accepts any discipline.  Sustainable education takes into account professional and personal identity that incorporates present and future concerns as they relate to local social and environmental conditions.

Chansomsak and Vale state that archetypal worldview has led to unsustainable practice and behaviour.  An ecological worldview is the preferred perspective, but is a process that can't be measured by time.  The three stages of evolutionary development are:

1. Accommodation - change that does not explore core values or epistemic philosophies (content), and may treat sustainability as a stand alone curriculum subject;
2. Reformation - epistemic values are questioned to devise a strategy for re-orientation (e.g. greening of schools or environmental management practices); and
3. Transformation - a level of knowledge acquisition will start the transformation process that continuously creates and revises.

An ecological framework presents global issues with sustainable practice in resolving problems through experience and connection with the environment.  Behavioural skills that include good citizenship, high levels of reflective communication, and civic engagement facilitate documenting and improving evolving practice.  Action research for education and developing communities share inherent epistemic characteristics of sustainable education, leading the authors to suggest that metatheory be applied to integrate all domains under sustainable practice.

The Buddhist approach to education: an alternative for Thai education

Sustainable development in Thailand developed after inclusion in the National Economic and Social Development Plan (NESDP 1992 - 1996).  By the 8th NESDP, an abstraction of sustainable practice had been established.  Chansomsak and Vale place emphasis on education 1) as a tool for human development; and, 2) for developing strong environmental links between individual and environment.  Implementing sustainability concepts in existing curricula have been sporadic owing to a higher priority weighting given to topics such as lifelong learning, innovative technology, non-formal and informal education, and basic education for all.

An education reform in 1997 led to the development of five different approaches to education:

1. Autonomous schools;
2. Buddhist approach schools;
3. Bilingual schools;
4. ICT schools; and
5. Plans and strategies for the talented.

The Buddhist school approach is an entirely localised approach towards national culture and religion.  As this holistic approach has characteristics that tie humanity to nurturing their environs, it can be considered more ecologically friendly by way of comparison.

Ideas of education in the Buddhist approach

Sikkha, meaning 'education, is the Buddhist principle of learning.  In Buddhism,  education conveys the practice of a way of living, so the principle of Buddhist teaching is to practice self-development through living well.

1. Sila sikkha - moral conduct that promotes peaceful existence; the practice of self-regulation that controls speech and behaviour;
2. Samadhi sikka - the study of the mind and subsequent training that promotes self-awareness and self-evaluation to activate goal-setting and sustain intrinsic motivation; and
3. Panna sikkha - an analysis and study of interconnectedness and the Laws of Cause and Effect.

It is understood that these principles must be taught together.  The practice of  one discipline without the others leads to severe shortcomings in behavioural conduct.  The awareness and concentration that is required of working memory to perform these tasks reflects the need for coordinated mental and physical activity.  Perceived states of turmoil cease to have primary significance.  Panna sikkha embeds reflexive processes crucial to engaging reason.  Chansomsak and Vale use food as an example of simple reasoning according to internal needs and wants.  When children are taught to understand that food nourishes and supports the vehicle that carries their being, they choose how to maintain their body through an understanding of the purpose and benefits of nutrition.

In order to support Buddhist concepts of human development, strong links to the environment become crucial to sustain the culture.  The level and contextual development in communication sustain students' motivation to continue living in clarity.

Implementation of the Buddhist approach to education in Thailand

The Buddhist approach to education was implemented in 2003, and by 2006 the 80 schools that were used as a pilot study had increased to more than 20,000 developed and encouraged by both government and religious institutions.  Budget issues were not a consideration, as the Buddhist approach requires no new equipment, just a change of attitude.

The application of Buddhist philosophy requires five actions:

1. Physical space must be clean, tidy and have sufficient access to natural surroundings that are peaceful.  Displaying precepts or images of Buddhism acts as a reminder of doctrines and are viewed as teaching aids;
2. Meditation, developing consensus on tasks in the classroom, or similar activities that relate to Buddhist practice and way of life are embedded into the curricula;
3. Buddhist principles are included to form an active, context-related and integrated learning that relates to students holistically as evaluation measurements are based on knowledge acquisition and behavioural objectives;
4. Promoting positive interactions between students and teachers and amongst each other is accentuated when the entire school body is regarded as a role model;
5. Management becomes a dynamic and cyclical sequence of strategy, performance, situation monitoring and adaptation or revision to understand cause and effect.  Participation and activities depend on physical location.

Integration of Buddhist teaching transforms both content and structure of formal  curricula and purpose, indicating a change in the methodology of schooling.  Innovative approaches to implementing the interrelation of cause and effect, the balance of yin and yang, in school curricula have included themes entitled "Picking up a flower affects the earth".  Harmony is the core essence of learning.  Topics are scaled according to age groups, so first-graders learn about the interrelation of mind and body, and their network of support (e.g. school, home).  Second grade students are introduced to the interconnections between human, animal and biological environs to understand the concept of relations and position within the community.  The practice of personal responsibility is an underlying philosophy that is embedded throughout the curriculum.  Environmental care and concern extends to include national statistics in third and fourth grade that introduces the binding ties of people and culture.  The exploration of these ties is deepened or strengthened with the introduction of ecology and cosmos in fifth and sixth grade.  Practical activities sustain the knowledge acquired.  Example activities for third grade student are growing organic vegetables and trips to padi fields.  When learning about crops, links between country, biological and physical environments, and culture, are developed to represent the holistic view of consumption and the proper way to consume.  This approach challenges urban lifestyle and strong links between school and parents is a fundamental requirement.

The practice of Buddhist ritualism and custom is essential to sustain activities and personal practice.  Tradition is dictated by developing the ideology of proper living.  For example, the tradition of studying and observing religious rites all night on Father's Day and Mother's Day, on sacred Buddhist days, and during Buddhist Lent is regularly practiced as is Dharma camp.  Local temples host yearly camps for seventh and tenth grade students that were initially sponsored by the teachers, and are currently sponsored by the townsfolk.  Family members are invited, strengthening the bond between school and community.  Since the children of Thailand began attending Buddhist approach schools, positive developments have occurred.  Gambling addiction and alcohol abuse rates are lower, and the physical school has become a place where the community convenes.

Since inception, behaviour of the children in Buddhist approach schools has improved.  Initially, many children were opposed to the activities and had no or very little focus.  After induction, students became aware of the benefits and habits that had developed, marking an improvement in studies and attitudes.  Camp visits often have children returning with an increased wisdom to act in accordance with their harmony and release negativity (e.g. asking forgiveness from teachers)

The practice of panna sikkha is interpreted to mean the evaluation and archiving of documents that are supported activities of a learning community.  Publications are kept as records of progression and distributed as a public relations exercise.  The successful approach to education reform is entirely due to location, however clear intent to practice and develop is the source of achievement.  In schools that have transformed, acknowledgement has been given to the principals and academic bodies who have been consistent in their practice and understanding.  Buddhist principles are fundamental to life and is a multi-level discipline that encompasses school, home and community holistically.  Parental involvement extends beyond the learning derived from books (e.g. presenting food to monks), and re-affirms values learned at school.    Strong ties between school and community enhanced by activities supports and binds the moral outlook of students.  The deeper the ties, the more effective the practice.

Buddhist approach schooling currently has focus on primary level.  Younger students are more open to the influence of teachers than those in secondary levels, hence curriculum for primary schools concentrates on delivering basic knowledge of existence and high school is categorised by specific subjects as entrance to further education is compromised by needing requisite knowledge, rather than accepting students who have been holistically trained for knowledge acquisition and professional conduct.

With government support, Buddhist approach schools have established a buddy network.  One or two schools identified for experience and potential are used as role models to mentor both regional and national schools.  The bi-directional transfer of knowledge improves and increases the learning concept of school management.  To maintain the quality of core discipline, enhancing individual ethics and moral conduct, frequency of evaluation and monitoring is established.

The Buddhist approach to education: an alternative for sustainable direction

Thailand's decision to implement Buddhist approach schools is representative of sustainable education.  While Buddhist approach schools are not specifically aimed at sustainability, its conceptual foundation supports sustainability.  Instead of viewing humans as a distinction in nature, Buddhist teachings focus on the natural co-existence of ecological sustainability and harmony.  Chansomsak and Vale propose that Buddhism be seen as an eco-religion, and argue that every single problem faced by the world today has been caused by "wrongful relationships" (pg. 13).  Transformation can only occur through human development.

Buddhism dictates that all humans are creators of themselves with the ability to develop and condition self to change or eliminate behavioural attitudes.  Improvement should be regarded as situation monitoring and constant evaluative analysis of experience.  In developing the self, individuality emerges and the ensuing celebration of self is found and determined by the chosen environment.  Understanding that humanity and nature is one develops the concept that exploitation for self-image and wealth is unsustainable practice.  Instead, behaviour is attuned to an harmonious co-existence.  When humanity makes the distinction that there is no difference between self and other, accepting diversity for what it is, self-interest is supported by activity that sustains global interest.  In conducting ecologically balanced lives, individuals see the inter-dependence and -connection of all phenomena.  The Buddhist approach to life is a process of cultivating responsive behaviour based on ecological practice.

Educating according to the Buddhist approach not only teaches internal factors, it teaches how to embrace the external.  It is the essence of sustainable practice as it portrays inclusion, contextualism and connectivity.  It is practiced formally and non-formally, so synchronicity is key to supporting the community in an integrative and holistic manner.

Chansomsak and Vale conclude that the Buddhist approach to education is a clear illustration of the ties that bind environment to learning.  Community support lingers and is more easily practiced.  Local knowledge is developed to sustain and improve living conditions.  Developing the human self is a universal responsibility which can be connected to the spiritual and ecological wisdom of all religion (e.g. Taoist balance and harmony, Native American circle of life).


Students direct their education at Manhattan Free School
The Manhattan Free School in New York City's East Harlem neighborhood offers an unconventional alternative to the city's traditional schools. The small private school is based on a philosophy of allowing students to direct their education, offering courses in comic-book making while omitting calculus. "It comes down to trust," the school's principal said, "the trust that given time, they'll find their passions, and when they do, they'll be eager to learn." The New York Times (10/4)


The Triple Bottom Line
The concept of the triple bottom line -- people, planet and profit -- is no longer useful and may even be counterproductive, argues Dave Stauffer. The triple bottom line encourages companies to see their social and environmental responsibilities as distinct from their moneymaking operations -- and that can lead CEOs to assume profitability and corporate social responsibility actually stand in opposition to one another. We need a new sustainable-business paradigm that enshrines the reality of CSR as a driver of corporate profits and longevity, Stauffer writes. TriplePundit.com (10/6)

Putnik, G. D. (2009). Complexity framework for sustainability: an analysis of five papers

Putnik, G. D. (2009).  Complexity framework for sustainability: an analysis of five papers.  The Learning Organization, 16(3), pp. 261 - 270.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/1190160306.pdf

Introduction

Putnik proposes chaordic theory as a perspective from which to understand how communities of practice function during turbulent times.  

Complexity management framework following CST

The state of complexity can be described as the normal working functions of large organisations.  Organisations are made up of internal and external  connections, represented as group interaction.  Interaction forms the substance of acquiring knowledge.  Complexity theory views organisations as chaordic enterprise (CE).  This metamodel is an "inherently self-sustaining and ultimately self-transcending system" (pg. 2).  Putnik and van Eijnatten propose  that a learning organisation could self-regulate and transform during turbulence.

There are five chaordic properties to CST:

1. Consciousness.  A rational state of mind that recognises cognitive processes as the creativity to spark internal motivation.
2. Connectivity.  Chaordic system works very much like memetics in that an organisation cannot be self-sustaining without integration.  As entities are organic (e.g. derived from living organisms), complexity theory highlights the significance of communication and discourse as a means to harness and reproduce creativity.
3. Indeterminacy. CST adapts the principles of cause and effect.  Every action has a consequence, thus management systems learn to view the past as a memory, the future as a vision, and the present as a means to create the link to the vision.  Planning strategies, therefore, should not look to control the future, but to prepare for it.
4. Dissipation.  CST view the duality of organisational creation and destruction as the flexibility to change and adapt to new practice.  In order to sustain stability in turbulence, high-functioning teams are deconstructed, trained in 'unlearning', and re-fashioned to ignite creativity.
5. Emergence.  Members who are self-regulated and actualised subsequently raise the levels of congruence and complexity of communities.

This approach places individuals at the forefront of activity, with communication and interaction seen as the pre-cursor to an outcome.  Emergent sustainable practice relies on strong interior development.

Five papers - a secondary analysis

Integrative metatheory contains all four quadrants of developmental areas:

• collective - internal;
• individual - internal;
• collective - external;
• individual - external.

However, organisations are rational and sequential, individual group members notwithstanding.  The complexity of management systems and organisational science suggest that cognitive assumption and human behaviour require a cohesive integration to function holistically.  As the intellectual capacity of transactive memory is raised, a sense of ownership develops in group members that results in creativity envisioning corporate direction.

To enable a decentralised task force (e.g. independent group members who are committed to performance), organisations require autonomous and integrated employees.  By developing embedded learning systems, the organisation learns from the bottom up, generating continuous waves of fresh input as novice members gain seniority.

Individuals align to culture through embedded activity that reinforces learning through integration.  Metatheory links competence and competence development to individual and collective interaction.  Embedded activity draws members closer, irrespective of identity (e.g. age, gender).  To support a decentralised community, members sustain each others' competence leading to self-regulated autonomy and the clarity for forward thinking.

Senior community members responsible for controlling organisational strategy face certain challenges as research constructs knowledge from the bottom up.  Rationalising the deconstruction of a community revolves around four constructs that show different meaning when viewed from individual and collective perspectives:

1. the tension between freedom and control;
2. the formation of research strategies;
3. the practicability of applying business management models to research organisations; and
4. the meaning of structural changes.

Community spirit generates the connection for open communication between group members, making it easier for senior members to adopt active listening. Role models need to take on a more accessible position where communication becomes uni-directional (e.g. individual-collective-senior).

The individual-collective-external relations are also vital components of sustainable communities.  External relations vary in intensity.  Some individuals prefer attending to external relations than to internal communication. While external communication is significant to the existence of the community, it should be viewed as a complementary process to internal development.  Highly specialised teams that are in conflict with management may break internal links to form new associations.

Conclusions

Complexity theory clearly has the feasibility to aid organisational theory.  Learning and growth occur naturally, and archives create multiple-loop learning systems.  However, in order to progress ecologically, we the community can apply learning processes that lead to creative use of technology and tools.

Edwards, M.G. (2009). An integrative metatheory for organisational learning and sustainability in turbulent times

Edwards, M.G. (2009).  An integrative metatheory for organisational learning and sustainability in turbulent times.  The Learning Organization, 16(3), pp. 189 - 207.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/1190160301.pdf

Introduction

Organisations that develop learning management systems, create an ongoing observation of praxis by documentation and reflexion (e.g. self-evaluation) on performance.  Groups that learn from self-management systems go through  developmental stages that are reflected in function and purpose.  Emergent responsibility and commitment to group development are enhanced with progressive knowledge acquisition that sustains credibility.


Organisations face increased responsibility as global presence leads to concern for sustainability.  Responsibility towards the environment ensures steady growth across the board.  Group dynamics changes the sphere of influence that organisations wield, resulting in identifiable dysfunction as teams grow progressively more diverse.


Integrative metatheorising
Metatheory is the formal acceptance of all theory.  Scientific theory (e.g. research) should be recognised as the ecological framework from which to structure knowledge.  Organisational development occurs through growth that is, in general, sustained in terms of economics.  Growth creates the instability that is reflective of turbulence.  Metatheory provides a view that acts as a magnifying lens to draw details of links and connections that define probable cause.


Some conceptual lenses for sustainability
The developmental lens
Commitment to sustainability requires a wider perspective.  Internal values create external standards.  A language develops to define purpose and function.  Social connections become goal-oriented representations.


As each organisation will encounter the same dysfunctions and issues, the developmental lens suggests that sustainability is interconnected with internal qualities and environmental conditions:

• Subsistence organisation - based on hard work and maximisation of profit for survival.
• Avoidant organisation - ignorance of environmental ethics results in external attack on organisational sustainability.
• Compliant organisation - sustainability is a responsibility drawn from regulation.
• Efficient organisation - sustainability is enacted from a budget-conscious perspective.
• Committed organisation - sustains economic, environmental and social activity, often setting standards higher than regulation requires.
• Sustaining organisation (local) - sustainability is developed from an  emphasis on  social integration, and economic development results from environmental concern.
• Sustaining organisation (global) - the organisations' purpose is to develop sustainable communities.

An organisation can only be sustained by drawing upon core competencies, thus future development can be regarded as maintenance of the present.  Each level of development is the sequential progress of learning.  The transformation of each group sustains a more complex form of organisation.

The internal-external lens and the field of turbulence
Developing internal-external links that connect an organisation to its environment is the key to sustainability.  When positivist attitudes are taken, only one part of the equation is considered and growth becomes unbalanced.  Dynamism in leadership has a twofold effect: transformation of an organisation from low complexity to high complexity occurs, however this growth also generates new uncertainty (e.g. turbulence) as organisations strive to remain stable.  Large organisations are said to have more complex internal networks and intricate connections to the environment.  By applying Occam's Razor, organisations have the opportunity to go to either high or low complexity states to achieve sustainable practice.


Environmental turbulence can then be seen to develop or enhance more forward thinking strategy, as practitioners learn from mistakes and process a more desirable state of conduct.


The learning lens
Metatheory indicates that there are four phases in a cycle of learning:

1. active behavioural phase - active physical engagement;
2. a reflective thinking phase - conceptual reflection;
3. an interpretive sense-making phase - cultural interpretation; and
4. social validation - evaluative phase.

Each phase can be viewed through either concrete experience as it pertains to the abstract, or by activity and its relation to interpersonal congruence.  In hierarchical terms, each cycle represents the level of learning and knowledge acquired.  The practice is often referred to as Sustainability-focused Organisational Learning (SFOL).  While it is crucial to have employees contribute to the organisational core, higher levels of individual learning will raise the potential of future development.  Communities that are unable to commit to this level of learning remain in existing conditions.

One issue that organisations face is implementing hierarchical learning that replaces single-loop learning.  By deconstructing values or institutionalised methods, communities are able to view the bare framework of function and purpose to embed new best practice policies.

Metatheorising sustainability paradoxes

The growth paradox

Indications to sustainable development require vertical growth in an organisation that correlates with increased internal development.  Internal activity during non-turbulent times causes the transformation that occurs during periods of instability.  Strategic planning may have adverse effects if the focus is on economic gain without consideration for sustaining and maintaining the community.

The learning paradox

Learning lenses consider growth, knowledge acquisition and sustainability where single loop learning is indicative of 'know what', double loop learning acquires 'know how', and triple loop learning reveals 'know why'.  Triple loop learning is the most functional in organisations that have a global span.

The sustainability paradox
While organisations face certain stress during inclement periods, care should be taken to retain articulated and persistent identity as transformation occurs. The paradox occurs as the organisation attempts the balance of sustainable growth through change and stability that in turn, leads to further development.  As organisations are complex structures, different stages of individual and team development effect multi-level learning.


Conclusion
Sustainable development is seen to be the key route to the growth of an organisation through embedded practice and learning.  It has been suggested that there is a fundamental difficulty in knowing how to embed triple loop learning within the existing single loop model.  Orthodox thinking requires metatheory to facilitate the understanding, deconstruction and rebuilding of familiar concepts.