Learning Styles

Anderson, T. (2008). Toward a theory of online learning. In T. Anderson, & F. Elloumi, (Eds.), Theory and practice of online learning (2nd ed.)  Retrieved from http://www.aupress.ca/books/120146/ebook/01_Anderson_2008_Ally-Online_Learning.pdf


Contributed chapter by: Ally Mohamed


Introduction
Asynchronous communication promotes higher-order thinking.  Instructional strategy, not technology influences the quality of learning.  The computer is a medium that provides processing capabilities, and delivers instruction to learners.  Learning materials should be designed to engage and promote the student so the focus is on learning, with adequate support, on achieving workplace context through interaction and collaboration.


Designing online learning materials
Based on proven and sound learning theories, a combination of theories are used.  Research materials include add ons to existing theories to address new and changing learning contexts.  The author's choice is to use connectivism to guide the designer when planning the use and delivery of online learning objectives.  Course content should include strategies on motivation, critical thinking, personal development, and methods of comprehension while encouraging interaction and feedback.



Schools of learning

• Historically behaviourism has been used to measure output of computer based learning. From a behaviourists perspective, the mind is a black box. It was thought if a student had effectively understood the lesson, there would be commensurate changes in his behaviour.  However, critics indicate that not all learning related behaviour is observable.
• Cognitive psychology states that learning is a process that includes memorisation, motivation, analysis and reflection.  An internal process that is dependent upon individual intellect and commitment.  We rely on our senses to absorb information and theory relies on this sequence of events occurring: information is received in our sensory store which has a life span of 1 second; if it isn't transferred to the working memory (second stage) within this time, it is lost.  The working memory is short term memory (shelf life = 20 seconds), where analysis takes place.  The deeper the analysis, the richer the information that is transferred to long term memory where the information either is fitted into existing philosophies, or existing philosophies fit to new information.
• Constructivism is the theory of learning by observation and interpretation of the world relative to the individual.  The concept that learners must put their experience into context before it becomes meaningful/useful.
• Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, complexity and self-organisation theories.  It indicates that individuals learn and work within a network that is constantly changing and developing.  New methods adapt to or replace existing models.  The author indicates that connectivism is gaining acceptance as the means to measure learning, but states that these theories are interconnected in their overlap of ideas and principles - a taxonomy of learning.

Behaviourist school of learning

1. Student told explicit outcomes of learning in order to self assess progress;
2. Sequencing of materials go from simple to complex;
3. Student examined to measure achievement of outcome;
4. Feedback monitors the need for corrective action

Cognitive school of learning

1. Information commensurate to student intellect must be placed in such a way as to attract maximum cognitive tracking that lead to clear goals.  Suggestions include placing priority text in the middle, organising secondary information under self-reflecting headings, and sensory items kept to a minimum or eliminated.
2. Design of information should be structured so as to make memory links to existing knowledge by using pre-instructional questions.
3. To prevent information overload, and to enhance sequential processing, concept maps are used to cue the learner on the general overview of the course.  Students are expected to generate their own maps at the end of lessons to indicate their level of acquired learning.
4. Effective strategies of transferring information from working memory to long term memory are indicated in the process of application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.  Real-life experience of this process embeds the information.
5. Strategies are based on observed learning styles.  Learning styles are the way we perceive and process information (Kolb), while corresponding sensory elements filter the way we use knowledge (Myers-Briggs).  Philosophies for design support the various types of student learning practice.
6. Dual-coded information (textual and visual) is processed in different areas of the brain.  Different modes of presentation allow the student to embed information in a way that suits them best.
7. Motivation to learn starts by capturing the student's attention by way of connective activity.  Objectives are made obvious, so the student progresses in context by means of application to real world activity.
8. Opportunities to reflect, collaborate and check progress are effective strategies that allow students to reflect and adjust their approach to learning when required.
9. Effective online strategies allow for different and real life experiences that encourage personal meaning making, embedding learning in long term memory.

Constructivist school of learning

1. Learning must be active.  High level processing takes place when students participate in activities that create experiences rich in personal meaning.
2. Mezirow (cited) indicates transformative learning uses the meaning of experience to guide future actions.  Information filtered through an instructor may not be contextually appropriate for the student.
3. Group work encourages collaboration and cooperation, component parts of constructivist theory.  Groups benefit from individual strengths.
4. Students are allowed to choose learning goals as outlined by the instructor.
5. Within lessons are embedded questions about course content.  Course design should include time and opportunity for students to reflect on the relevance and meaning of the information.
6. Relevant material include examples that assist the students in choosing activities to complete meaning making.
7. Interaction through social presence allows the exchange of ideas, new knowledge, skills and attitudes between students.  The developing synergy between instructor, content and student significantly enhances the learning experience.

Connectivist theory for online learning

1. Current information builds upon existing knowledge.  Students need to be auto-regulating and self-teaching when faced with plurality of information available on the internet.
2. There must be acceptance that implications of future research may invalidate current accepted theory.
3. An increase in information sources indicates that authenticity of information must be verified by the student.
4. Students must recognise knowledge that has been invalidated and replaced with current research.  In order to keep abreast, students are instructed in searching and maintaining active links with ongoing research.
5. Diversity of thinking is an outcome of learning and knowledge.  By connecting students globally, alternative patterns of thinking emerge to be examined and shared.
6. Information should be accumulated from a variety of sources to understand diversity.  Multi-channel systems are used to deliver information and facilitate optimal learning.
7. The medium of technology alters the process of learning.  Student expertise will depend on prior knowledge.
8. By exposing students to different fields, links connecting the knowledge network are made.
9. The transformative evolution of information requires instructors to conduct constant analysis of online learning designs.  Future research should optimally include functioning in a digital network age.

Conclusion

• Online learning is not the linking of objects on the web, but a sequence of instructions designed to guide the student to a known objective.  From a variety of strategies employed, students will select the mode that suits best.
• Pre-learning materials outline course details and objectives.  Advance organisers establish a structure that students can use to self-evaluate.  Pre-requisites activate the cognitive structure that students will need to complete the course.
• Learning activities take into account modalities of information transfer that embed learning in long term memory.  Communication of lesson summary from students promotes higher order thinking.
• Access to material should correlate to the sequential processing of information from sensory store to working memory.  Social presence allows contextual sharing of information enabling meaning making.
• Behaviourist strategies teach facts and figures (what); cognitive strategies teach principles and processes (how).  Constructivist strategies teach meaning making and contextual learning.  Connectivism is recommended to guide the development and flexibility of online learning.

See Concept Map