Jawitz, J. (2009). Academic Identities and communities of practice in a professional discipline

Jawitz, J. (2009).  Academic Identities and communities of practice in a professional discipline.  Teaching in Higher Education, 14(3), pp. 241 - 251.  Retrieved on August 7, 2010 from http://www.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/openurl?genre=article&issn=1356-2517&volume=14&issue=3&spage=251


Interviews conducted on university staff reveal changes that have taken place over a thirty year time frame.  Issues in identity formation in staff and reputation are covered.  Details include leadership qualities, the relationship between practice and research, and a shift in ideology from traditional to modern.


Academic identity
Identity is constructed by individuals as they ally themselves with what is important or of primary consideration, indicating that identity is entrenched (e.g. doctors may view themselves as healers, or they may have a particular calling to a hobby).  They may not always present this side of themselves, and it may not be apparent to the world at large as it constitutes the values they attribute to life.  Membership to communities of practice open up an individual to experience that reveals environmental stimulation.  


Experience of practice and environment help develop identity.  Within academia, a traditional view has been to think of teaching as less rewarding than research.  Teaching has been a profession that encountered isolation, unlike research practice which embodies collective knowledge.


Identity construction and participation
Models describing transactive memory deconstruct identity building processes to verify and understand the supportive nature of integration within a community of practice.  Transformation in identity is indiscernible when viewed on a day to day basis.  Although embedded activity progressively enhances an individuals cognitive and associative behaviour, epistemic beliefs play a major role in the way adaptation to transformation occurs.


Identity becomes a negotiated compromise between the framework of the environment (e.g. setting), the extent of participation, the individual, and self-perception.  The learning trajectories that emerge are attributed to past and current exposure, and define future potential.  New members observe displayed patterns of behaviour and modulate themselves.  Levels of participation determine involvement and attitude.  Initial attitudes transform over time as new members settle in with the familiar, and assert independence.  Tensions are observed as new members attempt to find their own space amongst established members.  Evolution and progression is a continuous cycle.


Communities of practice in the department of design
In this study, a division between undergraduate and postgraduate teaching departments was obvious.  The undergraduate teaching department consisted of new members and mid-level employees.  Senior teaching faculty members were seconded to the graduate programs.  Although there were regularly held meetings, departments were unable to contribute effectively together (e.g. working memory can only store x amount of information).  Jawitz indicates that the undergraduate department was tightly structured, whereas the postgraduate department was much looser owing to the type of study at that level.  As such, postgraduate studies required more senior level academics.


Traditionally, experience is gained through professional unity by building identity through interaction.  Communities of practice exist as memes.  Group members are seen to be role models.  The point of this is to develop a generation of young professionals capable of handling working systems.  Assessment is geared up to understand how students can best deliver their knowledge in ways that shows in behavioural change.


Tensions between professional and academic identities
Identity lies in valuing empathic integrative behaviour of the collective (e.g. people like each other).  Fear of complacency motivates individuals to strive harder, and in doing so, expect group members to work at the same levels of speed or accuracy.  Tensions emerge when individual members have expectations that cannot be met (e.g. belief that one individual is doing more).  An open and honest culture of communication is vital to transactive memory and integrative behaviour.


A commitment to participate may mean a shifting of priorities over time.  Senior members accept responsibilities with a growing awareness of group function and activity.  Identities develop and transform continuously as roles or job functions develop.  The holistic knowledge and capability that an individual develops as a result of time on performance generates subject matter expertise allowing task based function to develop within a different capacity.  Core functions change as members realise their strengths.  Novice members produce behavioural changes based on what they see and how they are treated.  The priorities and values that a senior member models establishes the professionalism of communities of practice.


Sustaining standards within a community can lead to contextual problems when considering an international network.  Introspective reflection determines how discipline and practice emerge.  Contextual links to other members of the community makes a difference in how knowledge is gathered.  Role models with strong identities that adhere to one principle archive knowledge in a manner that dictates their practice and may not be entirely suited for other areas in the profession (e.g. the difference between a teacher teaching a novice researcher, and a researcher teaching the novice).


An emergent research identity
Acknowledging the value of outputs and how they relate to professional and academic sustainability bifurcates the discipline into fields of 1) practice; and 2) research.  By allying to a professional standard (e.g. a community) both functions are brought together to produce a new knowledge that has its foundations in both disciplines.  Younger generations are more in tune with this approach to knowledge gathering and adapt to acquiring both to ensure a successful future.  Early indications suggest that research and development departments may emerge in all areas of practice.  Compromise is sought and only made possible by open communication that has high regard for contributions, and patience in solving problems.


Identity and career trajectories
Professional practice can be viewed as the practice of consulting with a strong and sustainable link to learning and analysis.  Projection of successful identities determines an individuals career path.  By absorbing the culture, values and knowledge of a community, members are able to transmit their learning via inbound or outbound trajectories (e.g. stimulation from one group may cause similar results in another group).  Current trends of practice are the results of an evolving and progressive culture.


Conclusion
Although a shortage of available talent has led to a competitiveness within individuals, and an acceptance of legitimate peripheral participation (e.g. part-time work to maintain links in a professional capacity).  Assessment takes into consideration the outcomes as modeled by individual practice.  A supportive framework allows members to develop an identity within their function that enhances group process and activity (e.g. when each member accepts responsibility for their function and values group members with empathy as they develop and interact during activities).  Individual epistemic beliefs direct their area of involvement and the development of their professional identity.  As experience is gained and knowledge increases, levels of participation change and adapt with seniority that propels transformation in identity.

Anderberg, E., Norden, B. and Hansson, B. (2009). Global learning for sustainable development in higher education: recent trends and a critique.

Anderberg, E., Norden, B. and Hansson, B. (2009).  Global learning for sustainable development in higher education: recent trends and a critique.  International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 10(4), pp. 368 - 378.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/2490100405.pdf


Introduction
Global Learning for Sustainable Development (GLSD) has been of international interest since UNESCO implemented its Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) objectives through the Framework for a Draft Implementation Scheme that introduce profound changes for higher education.  The significance of this relates to the way we view the world in terms of learning as a global concern.  Not only are we expected to understand the world we live in, we look for learning systems that are sustainable within a global culture.  The authors address concerns for the complexity and interconnectedness of problems in a more holistic and multidisciplinary manner.


Policy declarations that emerged in the 1970's highlighted the growing concern and specific awareness of issues in higher education and global development.  One of the two major themes of the Kyoto Declaration of 1993 states that higher education institutions take responsibility for educating the public through outreach activities (outlined in UNESCO, 1998) to increase awareness of Sustainable Development (SD).  There are relatively few research articles on global learning and higher education which is to be expected as this domain has only been explored for twenty years.


The emerging of GLSD
Global learning is defined as the embedded practice of acquiring new knowledge through connections and links made to everyday life to understand how problems of global dimensions and lines of conflict can be minimised to create sustainable practice in education.  The authors indicate that perception dictates that there is no one right answer to any problem, but that a variety of methods may complement and accommodate most situations.  Knowledge is not bound by the Principles of Cause and Effect as the amount of information gathered and distributed is vast and valid for shorter periods.  Knowledge has become more specialised laterally, so institutions have adopted new methods for learning required in a global context.  The focus is on how global learning networks stimulate learning in groups.


Literature review findings: challenges of GLSD in higher education
University/institutional levels
Work in 2004 shows that higher education institutions are playing a significant role in educating the population by offering lifelong learning courses on community awareness in learning, research and innovation, and critical analysis of policy debates of global learning structures.  Local universities act as a feeder for government to raise knowledge infrastructure of developed and developing countries.  Online learning is seen to reduce cost and increase the flexibility of learning for an environmentally responsible generation.  Therefore higher education supports integrating the national knowledge framework.


Existing methodology is not equipped to face the challenges of global learning comprehensively.  Instead, three main attributes are seen as core elements of interest:

1. the characteristics of students;
2. a philosophy of education; and
3. the process and content of education.

The authors refer to research that reveals knowledge and skills developed are moving towards multidisciplinary, multilevel and multicultural approaches in research and education.  Global learning requires institutions to train their students to have knowledge in diverse methodology, online connections, technology, global modelling, global communities and extensive field research.  The implications that technology brings to the 21st century has considerable significance in knowledge acquisition, methods and practice that sustains valid and relevant activities.


Curriculum level
Global learning is about careful analysis of information rather than rote memorisation.  Commitment to learning (e.g. establishing interest, intrinsic motivation and goal-setting procedures) leads to situation monitoring.  An approach of this sort requires specific competencies in group collaboration, systems thinking, integrated thinking, self-confidence, cooperation, flexibility, creative and lateral thinking, and the ability to reach a compromise.


An example of global learning systems where schools integrate mobile learning through interactive visits to exhibitions, workshops, classroom activities and corresponding auxiliary equipment for teachers can be found in Austria.  Heuristic learning (e.g. learning through experimentation and experience) complements sustainable development in concepts such as environmental education, education for sustainable development, global learning and peace education.  Adaptation and transformation is required for individuals to renegotiate concrete learning experiences as the situation relates to individual epistemic and ontological beliefs.  Individual and group development of self-regulating systems that lead to goal-setting procedures are crucial in maintaining collaborative unity.


Global learning enhances traditional teaching and learning practices.  A study of social policy from a global learning perspective focuses on how higher education in Britain promotes awareness, knowledge and understanding of sustainable development.  Global learning enhances curriculum development as a result of its relevance and dynamism.  Students are stimulated to broaden their outlook and think further than their individual and national context.  Creativity and imagination are necessary components when critically analysing social policy on a global scale.


Content-based approaches limit a global perspective (e.g. focusing on what is taught rather than critically analysing the information provided).  A focus driven approach (e.g. embedded learning that facilitates knowledge construction so students are able to internalise meaning/significance) requires more strategic planning rather than addition to content.


Individual level
One identified problem in teaching sustainable development is a common language.  Much meaning is lost and integration of sustainable development practice into the curriculum is problematic.  To empower and teach students, educators in higher education require substantial knowledge of issues in sustainable development themselves (e.g. subject matter expertise).  Educators who are unfamiliar with the topic for discussion may inadvertently limit knowledge gathering for the students.  Educators who can expand conceptions extend approaches to teaching and learning.  Comprehensive education delivers information, know-how and belief systems that are synonymous with identifying and growing into a culture of sustainable development.


Analysis of empirical research on qualitative differences in student learning reveals that global contexts activate student commitment to learning about sustainable development.  Students who developed critical thinking skills were found to have an awareness of the complexities and interconnecting concepts of sustainable development.  Students who asked questions and reflected on subject matters relevant to sustainable development found dialogic exchange and being in an extended global learning space (e.g. being with similar others) beneficial to learning outcomes.  Online discussion (e.g. social interaction with embedded learning activity) contributes to deductive rather than inductive reasoning leading to an holistic approach towards sustainable development and understanding the intricacies of global learning.


Discussion
Changing attitudes towards curriculum, pedagogy and higher education has meant that institutions with embedded sustainable development activities have increased transactive memory relevant to the growth of global perspectives.  Crucial to understanding the scale, impact and complexity of global learning is the constructive use of tools to develop individual self-confidence.  Consideration of political, socioeconomic and environmental factors shape the context and perspective of global knowledge on sustainable development.


Generating new global knowledge incrementally guides professionals in education to develop commensurate teaching strategies and curriculum design (e.g. flexibility to adapt and transform with new knowledge).  More research on global settings (e.g. world society) is required to understand competency as an expression and a result.  In order to integrate sustainable development into curricula, innovative approaches to multi-disciplinary, multi-lingual and multi-cultural understanding of competency should be investigated as a priority.


Conclusion
Alternative and multi-disciplinary theories, research strategies, and interventions are needed to sustain GLSD at higher education.  Institutions cultivate values and perspectives based on local requirement and can vary from community to community.  Suggestions for a competencies-driven curriculum takes rhetoric into praxis. Curricula in general integrates a global perspective without considering how students will learn in a global context.  Pioneer research in gathering information on best practice teaching and learning strategies is ongoing.


GLSD is significantly linked to complexities which is an incentive to find holistic ways of teaching and learning.  Student understanding of the complexities in a global context is pivotal to the competencies that are developed.  By integrating competencies and knowledge based curriculum developed through knowledge capability theory, it is possible to see that one feeds the other (e.g. increased levels of competency correlate positively to new teaching strategies that generate new ability).  This creates holistic knowledge and generates new capabilities to learn and handle complex theory.

Aubusson, P., Schuck, S. and Burden, K. (2009). Mobile learning for teacher professional learning: benefits, obstacles and issues

Aubusson, P., Schuck, S. and Burden, K. (2009).  Mobile learning for teacher professional learning: benefits, obstacles and issues. ALT-J, 17(3), pp. 233 — 247. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/451711_751304989_915792534.pdf


Introduction
Mobile learning is on the rise for reasons of practicality and efficiency. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that learning opportunities abound for both student and instructor. New technologies facilitate collective learning and provide current access to viewpoints not expressed by the instructor. The observed transformational effects are an area under-researched in favour of research on ICT integration in school curricula and use of technology on students. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that without appropriate research the task of critical reflection on individual teaching practices, the chances of transformation are limited.

It is possible that the reason for slow uptake of digital learning in formal education could be connected to the sense of isolation in the work place (e.g. classrooms). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that opportunities to learn occur in diverse environments and times. Mobile learning opportunities are presented during travelling times between locations (e.g. classroom to playground) and are ripe for professional learning. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden refer to Schon’s reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action and state that mobile learning offers both. They argue for collaboration of learning between student and instructor. Artefacts collected during use of mobile technology (e.g. information shared in text messaging may contribute to new conceptions and behaviour) are not fully recognised as significant to the learning process.

Collaborative and mobile teacher learning
Lifelong learning is required in a profession such as teaching. Collaborative learning is effective in enhancing professional efficacy as information is shared through anecdotes. Exchanges can be limited (e.g. contained within departments or colleagues; teachers wishing to share only with professionals outside the school environment). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that collaborative learning is acquired in short bursts as teachers move physically from activity to activity. Mobile learning allows access to expertise in diverse areas and a connection to a professional support network. A sample study by Wishart of teachers and trainees revealed that the most used applications were the calendar, the camera, a search engine and voice notes. Least used were the blog facilities and communication with others.

Dialogue enhances reflection and leads to group reflection. Emphasis should be placed on systematic evaluation through reflection rather than evaluation focused on specific issues. Furthermore, when addressing approaches to learning and teacher-student relationships, an insight into the role and learning of teachers should be considered as it relates to mobile learning.

Methodology
Participants
Eight participants with stakeholder interest and influence in professional learning and ICT in schools took part as a source of data.

Data collection
Respondents were asked about:

• their experiences with mobile devices and their use in professional learning;
• policies that influence or hinder mobile professional learning; and
• ethical issues.

Data analysis
Aubusson, Schuck and Burden kept the focus on actual and potential use of mobile technology in professional learning. Views, perceptions and comprehension levels were analysed. Abstraction established a structural framework to work from. Key elements are mapped to trace possible connections and links that influence. Three themes that emerged:

1. mobile devices used by teachers for professional learning that include concepts such as individual learning, reflection, collaboration and supporting staff development;
2. integrated use of mobile devices by teacher and student include opportunities for feedback and collaboration (in recognition of student achievements); and
3. ethics for use of mobile devices during capture and transmission (involving consent).

Teachers' personal use of mobile devices in professional learning
Reasons include:

• JIT (Just In Time) tool;
• portability; and
• student-teacher interaction.

Mobile devices were seen to enhance integration of technology, but it was acknowledged that the teaching profession has historically been seen to adapt and transform slowly. As there are still diverse levels of ICT skill in teachers, the gap between linking mobile devices and professional learning is ongoing (e.g. teachers' who have never setup or accessed an email account). Scaffolding is required to assist in understanding mobile devices as a tool for professional development. By providing models of use in situational activities (e.g. training in the use of handheld devices), others would learn to conduct individual learning. Personal involvement with a tool allows understanding of its potential. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden indicate that there is a general conception that teachers lack a culture of reflective process (e.g. teachers will save data from a project to reflect an event rather than as a means for professional learning). They state that this viewpoint may be purely anecdotal and have no correlating significance.

Potential use for mobile devices is high, but issues relate to slow adoption of technology and a culture that is yet to embrace reflection in collaborative professional learning (pg. 10). Reports from Australian and British governments highlight the recent developments in technologies to enable the effective practice of sharing and dissemination. Staff development can be embedded in a variety of ways. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden indicate research done in remote regions of Australia reveal few computers in these areas. Mobile technology has become the predominant means of connection. The way to make mobile learning mainstream is by modelling mobile devices as a professional development tool, encouraged by developing student mobile activities.

Teachers and students using mobile devices collaboratively
Incidences of teachers allowing students to integrate mobile devices during lessons are becoming more frequent (e.g. recording experiments; theatre). Despite reports citing the benefits of mobile technology in schools, it has not developed wide acceptance. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that incidences of students enjoying the process and feeling a sense of achievement is high.

Ethics of use in the classroom
Issues include:

• public access to information intended for a specific audience (e.g. the view is fairly relaxed concerning distribution as it cannot be accurately controlled, but it is generally agreed that dissemination to a wider audience would require permission);
• sharing of materials professionally (e.g. historically sharing of artefacts between teacher and student has always taken place - photographs, etc.; there was no danger of digital dissemination);
• archiving and record keeping (e.g. parental and student permission sought at the start of the year to encourage reflection on behaviour; sharing with participants may be acceptable; sharing with a wider audience may give rise to harmful consequences); and
• parent and/or student consent (e.g. without specific consent, teachers are unable to make full use of spontaneous occurrences even when mobile devices are available).

Development of policies and school bureaucracies are a result of working reactively towards reducing unethical use. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden identify four levels of consent:

1. permission is not asked, recording is surreptitious (not considered appropriate);
2. permission from student and parent is given to use mobile device technology for learning (ethical in a limited environment);
3. specific permission is requested (ethical in a limited environment); and
4. permission from student and parent is given to use mobile device technology for designated events.

Discussion
While the respondents were able to call on considerable experience in their fields, they cannot be seen to be representative of every teacher. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that trustworthiness will be established by the reader. Research into the following areas could develop further understanding on the slow uptake of technology:

• the ethics of using mobile devices for professional learning;
• the degree to which most teachers are digitally competent and confident; and
• the degree to which the teaching is a reflective profession.

The portability and multi-function aspects of mobile devices makes their use more appealing than traditional single-purpose devices (e.g. mobile phone vs. camera). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that technology teaches both student and teacher (pg. 12). Artefacts generated by mobile technologies can be used as the start point for generating an extended discourse of genuine partnership. Different viewpoints and perspectives can be gained by deconstructing the learning/teaching process (e.g. reviewing a recording after the event). The process is both transformative and disruptive. Experience is gained from practice, and is a significant part of the learning sequence.

Current practice in mobile technology is viewed as illicit and subversive (e.g. furtive recording may be used to humiliate instead of encourage) Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state. Popular press in the UK "is littered with examples and criticisms" (pg. 13). Australia has fared better. Generic consent is obtained at the start of each school year. Teachers are unaware of protocols that apply to digital image other than a general prohibition of public access.

Conclusion
Aubusson, Schuck and Burden have highlighted the potential of mobile technology to add new dimensions to personal development. Knowledge production and knowledge sharing is supported and enhanced by mobile technology. Analysis and feedback becomes more comprehensive. Learning opportunities for both teacher and student apply. With a shift in perspective, it is possible to view mobile technology as liberating and empowering. Students need to be prepared to use their mobile devices as learning tools. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest a cautious approach to embracing mobile professional learning.

Personal Philosophies of Teaching: A False Promise?

Daniel Pratt: Personal Philosophies of Teaching: A False Promise?
http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2005/JF/Feat/pratt.htm


Introduction
New regulations require teachers to have prepared a personal philosophy of teaching when being reviewed for re-appointment.  Pratt indicates that the core of these statements contain two ideologies that the review panel should be open to:

1. more than one teaching philosophy; and
2. serious consideration of said philosophy.

Pratt's argument questions the validity of the institution's request, and the method by which teachers collate their philosophy.  He indicates there are four basic assumptions to be made:

• the agreement on form and substance as to what constitutes a good teaching philosophy (a consensus exists as to the form and substance of a statement of teaching philosophy).  Universities prey on other institution's policies (policies based on faculty value statements that were more descriptive than analytical) to bootleg their own version.  Pratt considers the approach fraught with error.  He suggests the statements were not considered analytical because personal teaching pedagogy was not accounted for - the shortfall between individual teaching practice and personal philosophy "do as I say, not as I do".  Theory is certain only in that it is a theory.  Without actually having experience of practising philosophy, it is not possible for the educator to develop a statement of self.  From this perspective, Pratt considers the distribution of such policies to be of no value.
• the statements are 'learner centred' (acceptable philosophies of teaching are learner-centred).  Pratt challenges the idea that learner-centredness has the same meaning globally.  He uses teaching practices in China as an example: where teachers are in full mastery of knowledge and control.  Students accept this and submit to reciprocal roles.  Pratt's concerns focus on the lack of acknowledgement given to the variety of ways in which learner centredness is culturally expressed, and the subsequent effective teaching practices that account for and direct the learner.
• the reviewers are not biased against alternative philosophies (the reviewers' own philosophies of teaching will not prejudice them against other philosophies of teaching).  There is unspoken assumption that the review panel made up of peers are the best judges of the discipline, Pratt indicates.  However he is concerned that the panel do not receive any guidance or policy to respond to challenging statements, or statements that do not reflect panel philosophy.
• students are able to assess and evaluate the plurality of philosophies (student evaluations of teaching will have fair regard for a plurality of acceptable philosophies of teaching).  Most universities gather student assessment via questionnaires.  Pratt argues that these questionnaires have not been critically evaluated to establish the value of knowledge acquired, nor to reflect the differences that student evaluations place on teaching practice.

Pratt concludes by saying that it his experience not to have found a single good philosophy that dominates over others, but that there is a balance to be found between 'anything goes' and 'one size fits all'.  He does point out that in this climate some educators, in an effort to comply quickly, do not have the time to consider the policies they are bootlegging.