Ghazali, K. (2010). Yoga: an example of an holistic community of practice

Introduction
Organisations implement their strategy by acquiring a venue, and employ staff based on expectations of group values and culture.  Staff become representatives of the organisation and continue culture building among new members.  New members join the community from a fear of complacency (e.g. seek more balance in life) which motivates an internal desire (Winne & Nesbit, 2010) for change (e.g. lack of inhibition).  Empathy towards a structure of similar interest, desire to learn and participate with similar others irrespective of age, race, gender or ability (Riel & Polin, 2004) continues the evolving practice of yoga within the community, and for management learning.


Fair regard for the organisation
Representatives (e.g. employees of the practice) teach their knowledge displayed through their capability and ability (e.g. behaviour) (Proctor & Vu, 2010). As they teach, tacit knowledge becomes explicit knowledge (Ryan & Finn, 2005) and practioners learn from each others strengths.  Traditional views of hierarchy are diffused (Johansson & Heide, 2008) and knowledge gathering becomes the interaction of learning (e.g. behavioural output) (Andersson & Hellberg, 2009).  The continuous and repetitive actions become more practised and skilled as commitment and dedication to the end result becomes more apparent.  Goal setting is significant to ensure short-term, medium-term and long-term objectives are included.  Focus is sustained and members achieve some measure of success.  Feedback (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010) is necessary to improve performance and self-evaluation.  Individual standards mark personal criteria of successful outcomes.


Group culture develops through acceptance of conformity (e.g. the practice of yoga), but individual practice stems from epistemic ontological philosophies (e.g. how the body functions).  Integration is seen as acceptance and empathy for differences and diversity.  Dysfunction occurs when an individual reaches a block (Shanks, 2010) in output.  Limitations stem from a variety of negative sources (e.g. frustration).  Often a change in perspective is needed, the ability to reflect on past achievements that have led to the development of being, and the recognition that success is a naturally occuring progression of dedicated embedded practice (e.g. the level of practice at which individuals join the community and the knowing that comes with improvement).


Stability in the Digital Era
Technology has succeeded in extending the reach of physically located entities.  To start with, the recruitment pool has shifted to an open market of internationally sourced talent.  Opportunities to highlight community activities (e.g. hosting websites) encourages participation.  Community spirit (Clark, Dodd & Coll, 2008) is kept fresh as practitioners interact with external sources.  Knowledge-based practitioners (e.g. masters) run workshops to disperse knowledge.  Individual adaptation to practice depends on environmental demand for survival (Gharavi, Love & Cheng, 2004). Professional and personal identity become an holistic approach to working (e.g. content creation) and reflection on practice provides opportunities that generate further endeavour (e.g. learning trajectories).  Situation analysis and monitoring generate impulses in individuals that guide cognitive and associative behaviour.  The longer an individual stays in practice, the more likely she is to develop subject matter expertise.  Behaviour and identity transform as levels of seniority increase and role function changes.  Clarity of individual and group progress, and direction increases individuals levels of participation.


Conclusion
Content and context is important to the discourse of a community.  The way in which content is structured invites participation through activities, while contextually speaking instruction must be meaningful to group members (e.g. the reasons why an individual joins a community is tied in to why she stays).  Community structure is integral to developing a thriving culture.  Practitioners are viewed as role models who perpetuate the meme (Walter, 2007) of yoga.  Acknowledgement and value of their skills increases community knowledge.  Tensions in identity (Jawitz, 2009) stem from a lack of interpersonal congruence (London, 2003) or honest communication.  Paradigm shifts (Jorgensson & Keller, 2008) are needed to alter the perception of social limitations (Pratt, 2005).


Shaolin Monk Balances On Two Fingers


Refs:
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Gharavi, H., Love, P.E.D. and Cheng, E.W.L. (2004).  Information and communication technology in the stockbroking industry: an evolutionary approach to the diffusion of innovation.  Industrial Management & Data Systems, 104(9), pp. 756-765.  Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-5577.htm


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Riel, M. and Polin, L. (2004). Online learning communities: Common ground and critical differences in designing technical environments. In Barab, S.A., Kling, R. & J.H. Gray (Eds.), Designing for virtual communities in the service of learning (pp. 16-50). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.  Retrieved July 4, 2010 from http://usqstudydesk.usq.edu.au/file.php/15733/2010/resources/Riel_n_Polin_04_Online_LCs-classification-of-LCs.pdf


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Tuttle, M. (2002). A Review and Critique of Van Maanen and Schein's "Toward a Theory of Organizational Socialization" and Implications for Human Resource Management.

Tuttle, M. (2002).  A Review and Critique of Van Maanen and Schein's "Toward a Theory of Organisational Socialisation" and Implications for Human Resource Management.  Human Resource Development Review, 1(66).  Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1/1/66


Introduction
Tuttle takes the view that HRD is practitioner led facilitation of developing and maintaining human resource.  Her question is whether organisations need to identify perfect talent from without, or if it can be homegrown.  Organisational strategy highlights the significance of collective activity in developing social culture.  Transactive memory lies in collective interaction and interpersonal congruence.  Evolving culture decides new protocols and practices to adapt for survival.  Commitment to group values is the foundation for achieving survival.  Tuttle reminds us that the bulk of 'initial theoretical thought on organisational socialisation' was produced in the 70s and based on shared worldview of the era.


Organisational Socialisation Theory Building Journey
Tuttle uses Dubin's eight features of theory-building research.

1. the units of a theory - the elements that interact to create the phenomenon observed are presented and defined;
2. laws of interaction - the relationship and its effects on others have been determined;
3. defining the boundaries - attention has been paid to the focus of influences that determine interaction;
4. system states - the resultant outcomes of influence in group reaction have been identified;
5. propositions - considered and logical perspectives have been put forward;
6. empirical indicator - each unit of theory has recognisable means of testing;
7. hypotheses or research questions - created to direct the focus of research;
8. testing - the results have been determined according to the propositions.

These characteristics of theory building have been used to assess the development of organisational socialisation.  Tuttle uses Van Maanen and Schein as an example of theory that develops coherent argument and addresses contentious issues as areas for future development.


Units of the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
Defining units of theory depend on the level of abstraction.  Tuttle presents five implied components of socialisation:

• targets - the varying degrees to which individuals experience social adjustment, and role and function during initial stages of membership;
• agents - the perspective of interaction can be seen as led from observable group behaviour or individual led action;
• process - three aspects to socialisation are 1) in role and responsibility where functional behaviour depends on learning the requirements; 2) categorisation on entry and through subsequent promotion increases individual awareness of group hierarchy; and 3) interaction affects individual levels of inclusion;
• content - individual perspectives about roles and functions are linked to the manner in which it has been received, the organisational strategy and the phase of development within the continuums (1) collective vs individual; 2) formal vs informal; 3) sequential vs random; 4) fixed vs variable; 5) serial vs dysjunctive; 6) investiture vs divestiture; pg.8); and
• role responses - 1) a custodial perspective that limits innovation is individual acceptance of roles that facilitate learning through culture, policy and procedure; 2) content innovation is individual disagreement with aspects of policy that leads to change benefiting the organisation; 3) role innovation changes group mission.

Laws of Interaction for the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
Tuttle looks at the two ways in which units interact.  The first includes agent and target interaction through boundary movements, the second focuses on agent and content influence over target role responses.


Assumptions
Van Maanen and Schein state:

• transition generates anxiety, so novice members are motivated to learn quickly;
• interaction with existing members provides cues on interpretation and reaction that enhance internalisation;
• socialisation sustains culture;
• individual experiences may differ in focus, but adjustment processes are similar;
• individuals do not need to adopt organisational culture to be contributing members; and
• theory transcends organisational and individual differences.

Boundary Movements
New members are seen to be on the periphery.  Existing members test novices on self-image to establish group knowledge of individual skill and ability.  Levels of performance decide acceptance and correlate positively to an increase in responsibility.


Influence of Content
Organisations are able to influence socialisation by various means e.g. isolation of members or non-differentiation between existing and novice members.  These tactics provide a distinguishable sequence of events that result in innovation.  Using individual experience, skill and talent produces alternative reactions to adjustment.  By tailoring activity content, role responses that are desirable within the organisation can be achieved.


Boundaries of the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
Tuttle proposes that further work into identifying socialisation through the perspective of individual differences and environment is required.  Van Maanen and Schein indicate their theory includes only pre-determined elements that are mainly invariant.  Critics argue that these are influences that cannot be ignored.


System States of the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
If theory is viewed as an evolutionary process, adjustments to component parts represent a different state of purpose.  Over time, individuals and groups progress through a series of system states.  The process and interacting elements of socialisation affect the system as a whole, creating linked relationships and feedback loops.

• System state 1 - positive and negative feedback loops maintain equilibrium through self-balancing processes;
• System state 2 - feedback loops identify practices that lead to growth or decline; and
• System state 3 - a transformative shift in functioning leads to a state of instability where spontaneous emergence of new structures and behaviour do not promote equilibrium.

Stable organisational equilibrium is achieved through individual acceptance of culture.  A ripple effect of non-conformation during individual transition behaviour effects changes to the system state.  Although resulting behaviours from individuals change or affect the organisation, Van Maanen and Schein suggest that it is the result of organisation led processes.


Propositions about the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
Once a theory has been formulated, Dubin addresses its' utility through empirical testing.  In stating truths, propositions of theory in socialising are activated.  Truths are infinite and subject to extraction.


Empirical Indicators of Key Terms, Hypotheses and Tests for Organisational Socialisation
Experience of the socialisation process is divided into three areas: anticipatory socialisation, encounter and metamorphosis.  When comparing work created from one source, observable differences create difficulties in measuring knowledge base accurately.  Tuttle uses research in academia as an example.  Work cited from the same theory is not concluded in such a way as to add to theory base.  Some work pushes the scope of theory while others use the model in praxis to test empirically.  Recommendations to find alternative or supplemental measurements of organisational tactics and role responses reveal that tactics are less effective over time owing to an increase of influence in social elements.


Developments in research define the construct of socialisation through 6 domains:

1. performance proficiency;
2. people, relating to work relationships;
3. politics, concerning the power structures within the organisation;
4. language, understanding the technical jargon of the role and the organisation as a whole;
5. understanding organisational goals and values, both explicit and implicit; and
6. the history of the organisation and its traditions, customs and myths.

Peripheral outcomes of socialisation are turn over, job satisfaction, job performance and organisational commitment.


Implications for HRD
Successful intergration of individual with organisation occurs through socialisation.  Positive interpersonal congruence leads to commitment and high performance levels.  Theory-building research processes require iterative cycles to refine thinking.  Tuttle proposes that future research be aligned with linking individual research to the theory.  Each contribution validates praxis.  Progress facilitates the potential for emergent theory to base HRD practice on.