Laine, T. H. , Vinni, M. , Sedano, C. I. and Joy, M (2010). On designing a pervasive mobile learning platform

Laine, T. H. , Vinni, M. , Sedano, C. I. and Joy, M (2010).  On designing a pervasive mobile learning platform.  ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 18(1), pp. 3 — 17.  Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/
15163_751304989_921310039.pdf


Introduction
Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy state that "[m]obile learning, or mlearning, is one of the application areas where pervasive computing has become popular and is currently being intensively researched" (pg. 3).  Laine, et al. discuss elements of pervasive learning and ubiquitous learning that have led to embedded intelligence in mlearning (e.g. sensors, smart tags).

• pervasive learning - emphasis is placed on how intelligent environment and context sensitiveness link to the physical learning setting where the context, content and resources are provided (e.g. online university education);
• ubiquitous learning - mobility is restricted and connected to a specific context (e.g. specialised training that may require physical presence).

Laine, et al. refer to pervasive learning spaces  (PLS).  These environments offer the relevant education context where learning resources are delivered and interaction between students is sustained (e.g. traditional learning contexts, corporate training, tourist attractions).


Related work
Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy used Myst as a platform to deploy game based PLS quickly.  In this discussion they review current PLS platforms.  Games that do not explicitly present educational agendas have not been included.


Beaudin, et al. propose microlearning as a task divided into a sequence of learning activities through embedded intelligence (e.g. context sensitive wireless sensors built into objects and appliances).  The sensors identify when an object is approached or touched.  The system integrates deeply with the environment Laine, et al. state, but it lacks portability and student interaction (e.g. does not support group learning activities).  Furthermore, mobile devices are not used to their full potential as they are set to receive only audio instruction; communication features have been disabled.


Personal learning assistants such as LORAMS support learning through collaboration of knowledge.  RFID technology links films and objects in the environment so users can share their knowledge (e.g. videos that highlight problem-solving activity are made public, generating knowledge and feedback).  Tagging videos creates levels of categorisation.  Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy suggest that the dysfunction in this approach lies in the proprietory video format (e.g. the online format may not be compatible with individual mobile versions), and limited asynchronous activity.


Games that interact with a child's imagination rely on background music, sound effects and verbal commentaries.  Lampke and Hinske developed "Augmented Knight's Castle" (pg. 4) that reacts to touch through RFID and audio playback (e.g. iPad), and promotes interaction and play.  Despite its outstanding features, it lacks mobility Laine, et al. observe (e.g. the iPad is a recently introduced mobile device that potentially supports the features of such programs).


Laine, et al. include mobile learning opportunities in museums and galleries as examples of single purpose devices (e.g. the mobile devices store static information restricted to one location or context or object).  Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy indicate that the closest match to their work is the IPerG project (developers of multi-user publishing environment) that create multi-use mobile applications.  Myst (mentioned earlier) uses MUPE as a platform, thus reducing the need to reinvent the wheel (program developers can eliminate the labour intensive effort to devise their own platform; contributes to knowledge sharing and community learning/awareness; compatible with existing software).


The previous examples have been used within a confined space (e.g. a building).  Open air pervasive learning spaces (PLS) are flexible in relation to the physical context, but are not flexible in content.  Laine, et al. suggest that the flexibility of the system can be seen as problematic.


The Myst platform
Pervasive mlearning through gaming occurs quickly and easily.  Laine, et al. created and tested their Myst-based mobile games at events held internationally.  The authors detail their work to give scope to the scalability of Myst-based flexibility and portability.  Games are based on informal learning environments (e.g. UFractions is a game that does not have deep association with it's environment; ubiquitous learning).  It is possible that Myst-based games are embedded in the curriculum at some future date, but there is no evidence to support their idea other than in UFractions, Laine, et al. state.


Platform features
The concept during Myst-platform design included making the system compatible in various locations with little need for re-design.  The gaming features function compatibly with most applications.  Dimensions to the gaming option is explored through shared experience of the surrounding environment.  Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy refer to enigmas that need to be solved during game play.  The enigmas are questions that range from task-based queries to image capture.  There is no time limit; help is available from other students; there is access to hints/tips.  A single device can conduct multi-player functions so teams can play.  Game areas are categorised and assigned purpose designed enigmas.  RFID and GPS is used to locate the student.


Data is recorded using device functions (e.g. camera, voice notes) and Laine, et al. refer to these recordings as impressions.  Impressions also record ownership (e.g. student name, location stamp) and information concerning the enigma.  Students are directed to a central database that stores all recorded information (e.g. points) on a dedicated site.  Information is exchanged on thoughts and perceptions to understand the variety of experiences encountered.


Myst-based games allows story creation (with embedded enigmas) and narrators.  Scored points increase with levels of difficulty in solving the enigma during "battles" (pg. 8).  Points reduce when questions are answered incorrectly.


Design principles
Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy indicate that the development of the Myst platform is ongoing and subject to change and evolution.  The most important lessons learned were in designing PLS platforms successfully, they state.  The key factor is flexibility of design.  Flexibility is significant when considering how the system may be used in different contexts and with different content.  Dimensions of variety are resolved through flexible design:

• variety of contexts (e.g. physical locations);
• variety of content types (e.g. different media types);
• variety of players (e.g. age, gender, language, preferences); and
• variety of interactions between players and non-player characters.

By using open protocols and portable languages, PLS developers allow room for manoeuvre to achieve the flexibility required.  Platforms that can accept the above configurations remain open to sliding in renewed or adapted components without disrupting the entire framework.  External applications from other developers develop extensions or new features (e.g. apps written for devices such as the iPhone, Blackberry).


Interaction models are consistent in supporting student to student, and student to system communication.  Social dynamics supports and encourages learning Laine, et al. state, so profiles and congruence of interaction between playing and non-playing characters are of significant interest to developers.


Laine, et al. state that students are given the opportunity for reflection by extending access to learning data at the end of the activity.  Students extend the learning process by taking it further than the actual learning arena when they access the database of stored information.


Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy note that the primary factor when considering design of a PLS is to develop it with stakeholders as opposed to for stakeholders (e.g. within a museum setting stakeholders are museum visitors, curators, content matter experts).


Architecture
Myst has been developed using MUPE from Nokia.  MUPE sends the information in XML (eXtensible Markup Language).  The mobile device reads and renders the XML to the compatible mobile format.  It was chosen for its portability and ease of use.  The architecture is divided into four distinctive parts:

1. server - the authors added extensions to the MUPE server so that other developers can add their own classes and XML sheets; records are kept of individual performance; in the event of system failure and the mobile device crashes, the central database can start the game at the point before the crash; the server can dynamically change the content to suit the mobile interface; data collection is facilitated by circulating questionnaires after activities; a sequential database uploads impressions, performance and results to the off-site component;
2. clients - Laine, et al. state that the MUPE system was amended during design to include barcode recognition and near-field communication tag reading and in theory can support any J2ME-enabled device, although testing was limited to two types of Nokia phone;
3. pervasive environment - supports context, content and resources; information on the environment (a source of questions for the enigmas) can be captured for future reference, sensors provide information for deeper levels of analysis; mics and touch screens enhance the communication experience; and
4. off-site extension - where individuals in less central positions ("located outside the festival arena" pg.12) are afforded an overview to events conducted; impressions are uploaded for sharing and feedback; students are able to use it as a 'rear-view mirror' when comparing results and memories.

Evaluation
The sequential process for evaluation started with a questionnaire and instructions on how to use the features.  Individual and team play was observed.  The questionnaires revealed that the students had enjoyed the game as "interaction with the environment is an essential part of pervasive learning spaces"  (pg.14).  The students responded positively when asked if they had learned more about the exhibition as a consequence of playing the game.  When asked, most students agreed that they would be interested in playing the game on their own devices in different locations.  Laine, et al. postulate that the children were young and their devices may have needed upgrades in order to play.  Enigma solving gained positive feedback, but impression recording features were not used much.  Resources were appreciated, but still under-utilised.  General consensus revealed that games built using Myst motivate students to interact with the environment and facilitate learning through discovery.


Conclusions and future work
In this discussion Laine, et al. present features, architecture and design principles of Myst as a platform for pervasive mobile games.  A review of alternative PLS do not have the functional flexibility of Myst.  Experience of developing Myst has allowed the authors to ascertain key design principles that promote flexible solutions.  Games have no age bias, although results show that children and young adults are particularly suited to the environment.


The authors intend to develop Myst to apply it to new contexts (e.g. forests, tourist attractions, rural/urban areas).  They further state that areas being developed include strategy and a gateway sensor that gathers and analyses data to increase sensitivity to context and utilisation of resources in the physical environment.  Editor components were introduced to new games for subject matter experts to add to.  Previous game designs are studied and adapted to build new games.

Cornelius, S. and Marston, P. (2009). Towards an understanding of the virtual context in mobile learning

Cornelius, S. and Marston, P. (2009).  Towards an understanding of the virtual context in mobile learning.  ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 17(3), pp. 161 — 172.  Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/434690_751304989_915792456.pdf


Introduction
Cornelius and Marston indicate that mobile technology is on the rise globally (e.g. 99% of undergraduates in the UK own a mobile device).  The 'anytime, anywhere' concept of learning can be applied and shared across the platform used for text messaging (e.g. simulated learning where mobile devices are an authentic tool in disaster management, mentoring, medical emergencies).  Cornelius and Marston highlight real-time decision making that affect progress and outcome as being mainstream in professional situations.  Praxis generates confidence by making intangible components visible.


Cornelius and Marston observe that past research (early 2000) has mostly concentrated on the technology itself and is now moving towards the effects of mobile learning.  By learning and associating context in different environments individuals are able to interpret and negotiate sense-making from a wider perspective.  Six factors have been identified that evaluate mobile learning:

1. context;
2. tools;
3. communication;
4. subject;
5. object; and
6. control.

Cornelius and Marston use virtual contexts to facilitate conceptualisation of mobile technology.


Towards the virtual context
Cornelius and Marston refer to Frohberg, Goth and Schwaab who consider four aspects of context:

1. independent - learning has no context to environment (e.g. in a bedroom at home) and highlights the fact that location does not matter;
2. formalised - learning has some context to environment (e.g. in a classroom at school);
3. physical - physical presence is not a requirement for learning; and
4. social - any location considered to be social.

Cornelius and Marston observe that the significance of location is irrelevant to the learning activity and view it as the underlying difference between mobile and static learning.  Context crossing applies when messages from a different social context (e.g. school) surrounds the user regardless of individual physical settings.  Mobile technology allows the creation of a virtual context.  Significant to this is the sense of association attached to a virtual community.  An established context can be created and sustained for the duration of the activity.  Mobile learning maintains individual virtual context association.  Simulation stimulates imagination and innovation.  Individuals are provided with a platform that encourages cognitive processes to become behavioural adaptation.  Imagination is integrated with activity, facilitating higher order thinking.


One of the features of mobile learning noted by Cornelius and Marston is disruption.  Messages interrupt the students' current context,  replacing it with a virtual context.  The unexpected and potentially inconvenient times in which messages are received integrates the virtual context with reality.  Cornelius and Marston suggest that opportunities for micro learning are extended.


A real-time authentic decision-making scenario
A flood simulation study framed by an activity theory perspective aimed to uncover issues related to control, context and communication.


The flood disaster simulation
The simulation scenario included fluctuating weather conditions that the manager had to address and respond to over a 72 hour time frame.  Mobile technology was used as the predominant means of communication.  The tutor played the role of civil defense representative.


The virtual context in the flood disaster simulation
Many aspects of the physical location had to be imagined.  Rules and norms were established by the tutor and maintained through association of role.  Questionnaires filled in by the respondents indicated that while individual feeling could not establish whether the experience was realistic, "they were more likely to disagree with the statement that the activity was artificial and did not reflect what would happen in real life" (pg. 8).  Cornelius and Marston note that the comments made by the student showed high levels of engagement in both positive and negative responses (the authors state that negative responses were due to technological and formatting issues) that had impact on preferred strategies that linked to progression.  Examples of decision making sequences made by students who were not engaged include:

• basing decisions on common sense; and
• a conviction that option 2 is always correct.

The simulation interrupted the students' regular routine, although Cornelius and Marston state that the students were interested in receiving communication on their virtual context as mobile learning enhanced individual learning, collective learning, connectivity to meaning making and included a sense of collaboration that promoted positive well-being.  Cornelius and Marston state that the simulation activity was viewed as novel and innovative, highlighting in particular the alternative approach to assessment.


Discussion
The concept of a virtual context in mobile learning adds definition and purpose, where imagination facilitates the cross over between virtual and real contexts.  Cornelius and Marston add that the disruptive power of messages that transport the individual to a different context requires further investigation.  The curiosity that compels students to engage (Gap Theory) could reveal significant links to learning.  Furthermore, interactivity of tasks (e.g. playing games, other commitments) indicates a complexity of difficulties that are associated with managing disturbances and juggling schedules.


The sense of presence created in a virtual context, which may be difficult for some to maintain (e.g. suppressing the physical environment in favour of a virtual environment), has been linked to increased learning.  Exploration will uncover issues in context, cognitive engagement, persistence and disruption.  Language learning and vocabulary association via text messaging may benefit from relevant practice.


Conclusions
Cornelius and Marston identify the rationale of mobile learning in its ability "to be de-coupled" from physical context restrictions.  Designers are challenged to provide virtual contexts that are "realistic and persistent (physically and socially)" (pg. 11) that engage the student in an authentic manner.  Pedagogy benefits by making use of imagination to construct learning that is reflected in deeper levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation in the students' performance.

Aubusson, P., Schuck, S. and Burden, K. (2009). Mobile learning for teacher professional learning: benefits, obstacles and issues

Aubusson, P., Schuck, S. and Burden, K. (2009).  Mobile learning for teacher professional learning: benefits, obstacles and issues. ALT-J, 17(3), pp. 233 — 247. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/451711_751304989_915792534.pdf


Introduction
Mobile learning is on the rise for reasons of practicality and efficiency. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that learning opportunities abound for both student and instructor. New technologies facilitate collective learning and provide current access to viewpoints not expressed by the instructor. The observed transformational effects are an area under-researched in favour of research on ICT integration in school curricula and use of technology on students. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that without appropriate research the task of critical reflection on individual teaching practices, the chances of transformation are limited.

It is possible that the reason for slow uptake of digital learning in formal education could be connected to the sense of isolation in the work place (e.g. classrooms). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that opportunities to learn occur in diverse environments and times. Mobile learning opportunities are presented during travelling times between locations (e.g. classroom to playground) and are ripe for professional learning. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden refer to Schon’s reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action and state that mobile learning offers both. They argue for collaboration of learning between student and instructor. Artefacts collected during use of mobile technology (e.g. information shared in text messaging may contribute to new conceptions and behaviour) are not fully recognised as significant to the learning process.

Collaborative and mobile teacher learning
Lifelong learning is required in a profession such as teaching. Collaborative learning is effective in enhancing professional efficacy as information is shared through anecdotes. Exchanges can be limited (e.g. contained within departments or colleagues; teachers wishing to share only with professionals outside the school environment). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that collaborative learning is acquired in short bursts as teachers move physically from activity to activity. Mobile learning allows access to expertise in diverse areas and a connection to a professional support network. A sample study by Wishart of teachers and trainees revealed that the most used applications were the calendar, the camera, a search engine and voice notes. Least used were the blog facilities and communication with others.

Dialogue enhances reflection and leads to group reflection. Emphasis should be placed on systematic evaluation through reflection rather than evaluation focused on specific issues. Furthermore, when addressing approaches to learning and teacher-student relationships, an insight into the role and learning of teachers should be considered as it relates to mobile learning.

Methodology
Participants
Eight participants with stakeholder interest and influence in professional learning and ICT in schools took part as a source of data.

Data collection
Respondents were asked about:

• their experiences with mobile devices and their use in professional learning;
• policies that influence or hinder mobile professional learning; and
• ethical issues.

Data analysis
Aubusson, Schuck and Burden kept the focus on actual and potential use of mobile technology in professional learning. Views, perceptions and comprehension levels were analysed. Abstraction established a structural framework to work from. Key elements are mapped to trace possible connections and links that influence. Three themes that emerged:

1. mobile devices used by teachers for professional learning that include concepts such as individual learning, reflection, collaboration and supporting staff development;
2. integrated use of mobile devices by teacher and student include opportunities for feedback and collaboration (in recognition of student achievements); and
3. ethics for use of mobile devices during capture and transmission (involving consent).

Teachers' personal use of mobile devices in professional learning
Reasons include:

• JIT (Just In Time) tool;
• portability; and
• student-teacher interaction.

Mobile devices were seen to enhance integration of technology, but it was acknowledged that the teaching profession has historically been seen to adapt and transform slowly. As there are still diverse levels of ICT skill in teachers, the gap between linking mobile devices and professional learning is ongoing (e.g. teachers' who have never setup or accessed an email account). Scaffolding is required to assist in understanding mobile devices as a tool for professional development. By providing models of use in situational activities (e.g. training in the use of handheld devices), others would learn to conduct individual learning. Personal involvement with a tool allows understanding of its potential. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden indicate that there is a general conception that teachers lack a culture of reflective process (e.g. teachers will save data from a project to reflect an event rather than as a means for professional learning). They state that this viewpoint may be purely anecdotal and have no correlating significance.

Potential use for mobile devices is high, but issues relate to slow adoption of technology and a culture that is yet to embrace reflection in collaborative professional learning (pg. 10). Reports from Australian and British governments highlight the recent developments in technologies to enable the effective practice of sharing and dissemination. Staff development can be embedded in a variety of ways. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden indicate research done in remote regions of Australia reveal few computers in these areas. Mobile technology has become the predominant means of connection. The way to make mobile learning mainstream is by modelling mobile devices as a professional development tool, encouraged by developing student mobile activities.

Teachers and students using mobile devices collaboratively
Incidences of teachers allowing students to integrate mobile devices during lessons are becoming more frequent (e.g. recording experiments; theatre). Despite reports citing the benefits of mobile technology in schools, it has not developed wide acceptance. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that incidences of students enjoying the process and feeling a sense of achievement is high.

Ethics of use in the classroom
Issues include:

• public access to information intended for a specific audience (e.g. the view is fairly relaxed concerning distribution as it cannot be accurately controlled, but it is generally agreed that dissemination to a wider audience would require permission);
• sharing of materials professionally (e.g. historically sharing of artefacts between teacher and student has always taken place - photographs, etc.; there was no danger of digital dissemination);
• archiving and record keeping (e.g. parental and student permission sought at the start of the year to encourage reflection on behaviour; sharing with participants may be acceptable; sharing with a wider audience may give rise to harmful consequences); and
• parent and/or student consent (e.g. without specific consent, teachers are unable to make full use of spontaneous occurrences even when mobile devices are available).

Development of policies and school bureaucracies are a result of working reactively towards reducing unethical use. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden identify four levels of consent:

1. permission is not asked, recording is surreptitious (not considered appropriate);
2. permission from student and parent is given to use mobile device technology for learning (ethical in a limited environment);
3. specific permission is requested (ethical in a limited environment); and
4. permission from student and parent is given to use mobile device technology for designated events.

Discussion
While the respondents were able to call on considerable experience in their fields, they cannot be seen to be representative of every teacher. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that trustworthiness will be established by the reader. Research into the following areas could develop further understanding on the slow uptake of technology:

• the ethics of using mobile devices for professional learning;
• the degree to which most teachers are digitally competent and confident; and
• the degree to which the teaching is a reflective profession.

The portability and multi-function aspects of mobile devices makes their use more appealing than traditional single-purpose devices (e.g. mobile phone vs. camera). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that technology teaches both student and teacher (pg. 12). Artefacts generated by mobile technologies can be used as the start point for generating an extended discourse of genuine partnership. Different viewpoints and perspectives can be gained by deconstructing the learning/teaching process (e.g. reviewing a recording after the event). The process is both transformative and disruptive. Experience is gained from practice, and is a significant part of the learning sequence.

Current practice in mobile technology is viewed as illicit and subversive (e.g. furtive recording may be used to humiliate instead of encourage) Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state. Popular press in the UK "is littered with examples and criticisms" (pg. 13). Australia has fared better. Generic consent is obtained at the start of each school year. Teachers are unaware of protocols that apply to digital image other than a general prohibition of public access.

Conclusion
Aubusson, Schuck and Burden have highlighted the potential of mobile technology to add new dimensions to personal development. Knowledge production and knowledge sharing is supported and enhanced by mobile technology. Analysis and feedback becomes more comprehensive. Learning opportunities for both teacher and student apply. With a shift in perspective, it is possible to view mobile technology as liberating and empowering. Students need to be prepared to use their mobile devices as learning tools. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest a cautious approach to embracing mobile professional learning.