Ryan, P. and Finn, E. (2005). Field-based mLearning: who wants what? ACM International Conference Proceeding Series Vol. 111 7th International conference on Human computer interaction with mobile devices and services, pp. 327-328. Retrieved on June 6, 2010 from http://delivery.acm.org.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/10.1145/1090000/1085849/p327-ryan.pdf?key1=1085849&key2=4095975721&coll=ACM&dl=ACM&CFID=90850975&CFTOKEN=12499618
Introduction
mLearning is driven by technological evolution and an increase in mobile device users. Ryan and Finn observe that field-workers are prime candidates for mLearning. A context-aware learning system provides valuable solutions for field-workers, and for novice field-workers in particular (e.g. geologist, mechanic, archaeologist, journalist). The user-friendliness of any system is of significant importance. Systems should not be implemented purely for the sake of using technology, Ryan and Finn state, but be based on the requirements of an activity that embeds the use of technology.
Approach
Ryan and Finn interviewed experts in an unstructured and semi-structured format. The experts were identified as being highly experienced field-based workers or trainers. Those interested in mLearning were invited to follow up workshops. Ryan and Finn:
- established the new system is required through relevant literature; and
- confirmed the real-world requirements within specific domains.
Deeper levels of understanding were communicated with user profiling, task analysis and context definition "to fill in the layers of knowledge necessary" (pg. 1).
Results and findings
Accumulated knowledge comes from the domains of:
- telecommunications engineers (three types);
- probationary police officers;
- electrical network technicians; and
- news journalists.
In total, more than four thousand field-based workers were represented. Analysis was conducted to prepare generic results. The diversity of professions provided relatively high standard deviations.
Ryan and Finn noted that experience levels in field-based workers left some unable to justify the need for mLearning. Those who attended the workshops detailed specific "just-in-context learning scenarios" (pg. 2). Ryan and Finn suggest that there is a unique learning need in field-based professions, but indicate that it may not apply to all domains where target platforms are laptops instead of handheld devices. The prototype should follow a sequence where learning activities require "participatory design and training" and are followed up with "collaboration and assessment" (pg. 2).
Ryan and Finn use current expert opinion to analyse scenarios where generic, viable mLearning as it relates to competent field-based workers is employed:
- situations where field workers are introduced to new technology, process, procedure, equipment or knowledge and require remote assistance;
- changes to policy and procedure that changes practice can be delivered to the field worker without recalling staff for training updates;
- situations where field workers are introduced to rare or old technology and require remote assistance;
- components or influences that exist in the real-world are not covered during class, or are different from theory and remote assistance is required; and
- the learning need must be satisfied before the task can be completed.
Ryan and Finn indicate this approach that puts user before technology appears to be in conflict with recent literature in mLearning. Based on their study, priorities of contextual factors in field-based mLearning need to be reconsidered.
Future work and conclusions
Generic characteristics gathered from the user profiles, task scenarios and contextual factors are being tested against other domains to establish validity. Progressively generic characteristics "elicit specific instances with each new candidate" (pg. 2), indicating that using real-world scenarios in mLearning informs an initial design and specific prototype evaluations. Ryan and Finn have revealed the significance of the users needs and requirements. Their approach to designing a new concept software system to enable mLearning was based on valid responses from domain-based experts when asked "Who wants what", rather than designing a concept software and asking "Who wants this?" (pg. 2).
Laine, T. H. , Vinni, M. , Sedano, C. I. and Joy, M (2010). On designing a pervasive mobile learning platform. ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 18(1), pp. 3 — 17. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/
15163_751304989_921310039.pdf
Introduction
Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy state that "[m]obile learning, or mlearning, is one of the application areas where pervasive computing has become popular and is currently being intensively researched" (pg. 3). Laine, et al. discuss elements of pervasive learning and ubiquitous learning that have led to embedded intelligence in mlearning (e.g. sensors, smart tags).
- pervasive learning - emphasis is placed on how intelligent environment and context sensitiveness link to the physical learning setting where the context, content and resources are provided (e.g. online university education);
- ubiquitous learning - mobility is restricted and connected to a specific context (e.g. specialised training that may require physical presence).
Laine, et al. refer to pervasive learning spaces (PLS). These environments offer the relevant education context where learning resources are delivered and interaction between students is sustained (e.g. traditional learning contexts, corporate training, tourist attractions).
Related work
Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy used Myst as a platform to deploy game based PLS quickly. In this discussion they review current PLS platforms. Games that do not explicitly present educational agendas have not been included.
Beaudin, et al. propose microlearning as a task divided into a sequence of learning activities through embedded intelligence (e.g. context sensitive wireless sensors built into objects and appliances). The sensors identify when an object is approached or touched. The system integrates deeply with the environment Laine, et al. state, but it lacks portability and student interaction (e.g. does not support group learning activities). Furthermore, mobile devices are not used to their full potential as they are set to receive only audio instruction; communication features have been disabled.
Personal learning assistants such as LORAMS support learning through collaboration of knowledge. RFID technology links films and objects in the environment so users can share their knowledge (e.g. videos that highlight problem-solving activity are made public, generating knowledge and feedback). Tagging videos creates levels of categorisation. Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy suggest that the dysfunction in this approach lies in the proprietory video format (e.g. the online format may not be compatible with individual mobile versions), and limited asynchronous activity.
Games that interact with a child's imagination rely on background music, sound effects and verbal commentaries. Lampke and Hinske developed "Augmented Knight's Castle" (pg. 4) that reacts to touch through RFID and audio playback (e.g. iPad), and promotes interaction and play. Despite its outstanding features, it lacks mobility Laine, et al. observe (e.g. the iPad is a recently introduced mobile device that potentially supports the features of such programs).
Laine, et al. include mobile learning opportunities in museums and galleries as examples of single purpose devices (e.g. the mobile devices store static information restricted to one location or context or object). Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy indicate that the closest match to their work is the IPerG project (developers of multi-user publishing environment) that create multi-use mobile applications. Myst (mentioned earlier) uses MUPE as a platform, thus reducing the need to reinvent the wheel (program developers can eliminate the labour intensive effort to devise their own platform; contributes to knowledge sharing and community learning/awareness; compatible with existing software).
The previous examples have been used within a confined space (e.g. a building). Open air pervasive learning spaces (PLS) are flexible in relation to the physical context, but are not flexible in content. Laine, et al. suggest that the flexibility of the system can be seen as problematic.
The Myst platform
Pervasive mlearning through gaming occurs quickly and easily. Laine, et al. created and tested their Myst-based mobile games at events held internationally. The authors detail their work to give scope to the scalability of Myst-based flexibility and portability. Games are based on informal learning environments (e.g. UFractions is a game that does not have deep association with it's environment; ubiquitous learning). It is possible that Myst-based games are embedded in the curriculum at some future date, but there is no evidence to support their idea other than in UFractions, Laine, et al. state.
Platform features
The concept during Myst-platform design included making the system compatible in various locations with little need for re-design. The gaming features function compatibly with most applications. Dimensions to the gaming option is explored through shared experience of the surrounding environment. Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy refer to enigmas that need to be solved during game play. The enigmas are questions that range from task-based queries to image capture. There is no time limit; help is available from other students; there is access to hints/tips. A single device can conduct multi-player functions so teams can play. Game areas are categorised and assigned purpose designed enigmas. RFID and GPS is used to locate the student.
Data is recorded using device functions (e.g. camera, voice notes) and Laine, et al. refer to these recordings as impressions. Impressions also record ownership (e.g. student name, location stamp) and information concerning the enigma. Students are directed to a central database that stores all recorded information (e.g. points) on a dedicated site. Information is exchanged on thoughts and perceptions to understand the variety of experiences encountered.
Myst-based games allows story creation (with embedded enigmas) and narrators. Scored points increase with levels of difficulty in solving the enigma during "battles" (pg. 8). Points reduce when questions are answered incorrectly.
Design principles
Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy indicate that the development of the Myst platform is ongoing and subject to change and evolution. The most important lessons learned were in designing PLS platforms successfully, they state. The key factor is flexibility of design. Flexibility is significant when considering how the system may be used in different contexts and with different content. Dimensions of variety are resolved through flexible design:
- variety of contexts (e.g. physical locations);
- variety of content types (e.g. different media types);
- variety of players (e.g. age, gender, language, preferences); and
- variety of interactions between players and non-player characters.
By using open protocols and portable languages, PLS developers allow room for manoeuvre to achieve the flexibility required. Platforms that can accept the above configurations remain open to sliding in renewed or adapted components without disrupting the entire framework. External applications from other developers develop extensions or new features (e.g. apps written for devices such as the iPhone, Blackberry).
Interaction models are consistent in supporting student to student, and student to system communication. Social dynamics supports and encourages learning Laine, et al. state, so profiles and congruence of interaction between playing and non-playing characters are of significant interest to developers.
Laine, et al. state that students are given the opportunity for reflection by extending access to learning data at the end of the activity. Students extend the learning process by taking it further than the actual learning arena when they access the database of stored information.
Laine, Vinni, Sedano and Joy note that the primary factor when considering design of a PLS is to develop it with stakeholders as opposed to for stakeholders (e.g. within a museum setting stakeholders are museum visitors, curators, content matter experts).
Architecture
Myst has been developed using MUPE from Nokia. MUPE sends the information in XML (eXtensible Markup Language). The mobile device reads and renders the XML to the compatible mobile format. It was chosen for its portability and ease of use. The architecture is divided into four distinctive parts:
- server - the authors added extensions to the MUPE server so that other developers can add their own classes and XML sheets; records are kept of individual performance; in the event of system failure and the mobile device crashes, the central database can start the game at the point before the crash; the server can dynamically change the content to suit the mobile interface; data collection is facilitated by circulating questionnaires after activities; a sequential database uploads impressions, performance and results to the off-site component;
- clients - Laine, et al. state that the MUPE system was amended during design to include barcode recognition and near-field communication tag reading and in theory can support any J2ME-enabled device, although testing was limited to two types of Nokia phone;
- pervasive environment - supports context, content and resources; information on the environment (a source of questions for the enigmas) can be captured for future reference, sensors provide information for deeper levels of analysis; mics and touch screens enhance the communication experience; and
- off-site extension - where individuals in less central positions ("located outside the festival arena" pg.12) are afforded an overview to events conducted; impressions are uploaded for sharing and feedback; students are able to use it as a 'rear-view mirror' when comparing results and memories.
Evaluation
The sequential process for evaluation started with a questionnaire and instructions on how to use the features. Individual and team play was observed. The questionnaires revealed that the students had enjoyed the game as "interaction with the environment is an essential part of pervasive learning spaces" (pg.14). The students responded positively when asked if they had learned more about the exhibition as a consequence of playing the game. When asked, most students agreed that they would be interested in playing the game on their own devices in different locations. Laine, et al. postulate that the children were young and their devices may have needed upgrades in order to play. Enigma solving gained positive feedback, but impression recording features were not used much. Resources were appreciated, but still under-utilised. General consensus revealed that games built using Myst motivate students to interact with the environment and facilitate learning through discovery.
Conclusions and future work
In this discussion Laine, et al. present features, architecture and design principles of Myst as a platform for pervasive mobile games. A review of alternative PLS do not have the functional flexibility of Myst. Experience of developing Myst has allowed the authors to ascertain key design principles that promote flexible solutions. Games have no age bias, although results show that children and young adults are particularly suited to the environment.
The authors intend to develop Myst to apply it to new contexts (e.g. forests, tourist attractions, rural/urban areas). They further state that areas being developed include strategy and a gateway sensor that gathers and analyses data to increase sensitivity to context and utilisation of resources in the physical environment. Editor components were introduced to new games for subject matter experts to add to. Previous game designs are studied and adapted to build new games.
Cornelius, S. and Marston, P. (2009). Towards an understanding of the virtual context in mobile learning. ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 17(3), pp. 161 — 172. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/434690_751304989_915792456.pdf
Introduction
Cornelius and Marston indicate that mobile technology is on the rise globally (e.g. 99% of undergraduates in the UK own a mobile device). The 'anytime, anywhere' concept of learning can be applied and shared across the platform used for text messaging (e.g. simulated learning where mobile devices are an authentic tool in disaster management, mentoring, medical emergencies). Cornelius and Marston highlight real-time decision making that affect progress and outcome as being mainstream in professional situations. Praxis generates confidence by making intangible components visible.
Cornelius and Marston observe that past research (early 2000) has mostly concentrated on the technology itself and is now moving towards the effects of mobile learning. By learning and associating context in different environments individuals are able to interpret and negotiate sense-making from a wider perspective. Six factors have been identified that evaluate mobile learning:
- context;
- tools;
- communication;
- subject;
- object; and
- control.
Cornelius and Marston use virtual contexts to facilitate conceptualisation of mobile technology.
Towards the virtual context
Cornelius and Marston refer to Frohberg, Goth and Schwaab who consider four aspects of context:
- independent - learning has no context to environment (e.g. in a bedroom at home) and highlights the fact that location does not matter;
- formalised - learning has some context to environment (e.g. in a classroom at school);
- physical - physical presence is not a requirement for learning; and
- social - any location considered to be social.
Cornelius and Marston observe that the significance of location is irrelevant to the learning activity and view it as the underlying difference between mobile and static learning. Context crossing applies when messages from a different social context (e.g. school) surrounds the user regardless of individual physical settings. Mobile technology allows the creation of a virtual context. Significant to this is the sense of association attached to a virtual community. An established context can be created and sustained for the duration of the activity. Mobile learning maintains individual virtual context association. Simulation stimulates imagination and innovation. Individuals are provided with a platform that encourages cognitive processes to become behavioural adaptation. Imagination is integrated with activity, facilitating higher order thinking.
One of the features of mobile learning noted by Cornelius and Marston is disruption. Messages interrupt the students' current context, replacing it with a virtual context. The unexpected and potentially inconvenient times in which messages are received integrates the virtual context with reality. Cornelius and Marston suggest that opportunities for micro learning are extended.
A real-time authentic decision-making scenario
A flood simulation study framed by an activity theory perspective aimed to uncover issues related to control, context and communication.
The flood disaster simulation
The simulation scenario included fluctuating weather conditions that the manager had to address and respond to over a 72 hour time frame. Mobile technology was used as the predominant means of communication. The tutor played the role of civil defense representative.
The virtual context in the flood disaster simulation
Many aspects of the physical location had to be imagined. Rules and norms were established by the tutor and maintained through association of role. Questionnaires filled in by the respondents indicated that while individual feeling could not establish whether the experience was realistic, "they were more likely to disagree with the statement that the activity was artificial and did not reflect what would happen in real life" (pg. 8). Cornelius and Marston note that the comments made by the student showed high levels of engagement in both positive and negative responses (the authors state that negative responses were due to technological and formatting issues) that had impact on preferred strategies that linked to progression. Examples of decision making sequences made by students who were not engaged include:
- basing decisions on common sense; and
- a conviction that option 2 is always correct.
The simulation interrupted the students' regular routine, although Cornelius and Marston state that the students were interested in receiving communication on their virtual context as mobile learning enhanced individual learning, collective learning, connectivity to meaning making and included a sense of collaboration that promoted positive well-being. Cornelius and Marston state that the simulation activity was viewed as novel and innovative, highlighting in particular the alternative approach to assessment.
Discussion
The concept of a virtual context in mobile learning adds definition and purpose, where imagination facilitates the cross over between virtual and real contexts. Cornelius and Marston add that the disruptive power of messages that transport the individual to a different context requires further investigation. The curiosity that compels students to engage (Gap Theory) could reveal significant links to learning. Furthermore, interactivity of tasks (e.g. playing games, other commitments) indicates a complexity of difficulties that are associated with managing disturbances and juggling schedules.
The sense of presence created in a virtual context, which may be difficult for some to maintain (e.g. suppressing the physical environment in favour of a virtual environment), has been linked to increased learning. Exploration will uncover issues in context, cognitive engagement, persistence and disruption. Language learning and vocabulary association via text messaging may benefit from relevant practice.
Conclusions
Cornelius and Marston identify the rationale of mobile learning in its ability "to be de-coupled" from physical context restrictions. Designers are challenged to provide virtual contexts that are "realistic and persistent (physically and socially)" (pg. 11) that engage the student in an authentic manner. Pedagogy benefits by making use of imagination to construct learning that is reflected in deeper levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation in the students' performance.
