Ghazali, K., Cheong, S., Sattur, M., Reushle, S. and Duong , K. (2011). Islands in the stream: Wrestling with the challenges of the group process in an online learning environment.
Abstract
If the future of work is to be more fluid with groups and teams being assembled and disbanded frequently, an essential skill will be the ability to formulate the best-fitting team. This will enable the group to move quickly through the forming, storming and even norming stages, to maximise time-on-performing-task. This paper explores the use of group work for learning and teaching through the eyes (and experiences) of several learners enrolled in a one semester, postgraduate, online course delivered via the Learning Management System, Moodle. The course relies very much on successful group work and sound group dynamics including understanding individual roles and responsibilities, sharing mutual experiences and developing a degree of trust that unites members and generates a sense of attachment to the community. When students are required to participate in online group activities, one of the frequent comments is the disappointment and frustration when peers do not contribute equally. This brings its own set of challenges for both the students and the teacher, particularly in terms of managing complex relationships, clarifying expectations and achieving learning outcomes within a defined period of time. Building in assessment strategies related to group participation and group outputs endeavours to wrestle with these challenges in order to reap the benefits of effective computer mediated learning environments.
Introduction/Background
This paper reviews the use of group work for learning and teaching through the eyes (and experiences) of several learners enrolled in a postgraduate, online course. The success of the course relies very much on group work and sound group dynamics including understanding roles and responsibilities within a group. When students are expected to participate in group activities, one of the more frequent comments that emerges is the disappointment and frustration when others do not participate equally. By building in a degree of assessment related to group participation, the course designer/ facilitator has attempted to address this issue.
Learning through communities or technology is not a new phenomenon (Ala-Mutka, Punie & Ferrari, 2009). With the availability of web-based technologies, a community is no longer limited by physical access. Communities of Inquiry (COI) have been used as a framework to develop online collaborative learning processes. Activity theory is viewed as a complementary framework to approach online collaboration. Actions and interactions are approached from historical and cultural perspectives. The division of labour, rules and instruments actively engage a transformation process, while the analysis of elements and relationships facilitates the understanding and development of the activity holistically.
Interactions in groups depend on the varying degrees to which individuals experience role and function, and social adjustment during the initial stages of membership. As individuals observe group behaviour (or modeled behaviour) personal perspectives of interaction are formed. The progression in group learning, and consequent performance depends on the overt functional behaviour (e.g. type of behaviour the group display to a newcomer). Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari (2009) propose that traditional education establishments target development and measurement without encouraging informal interaction and collaboration. While online collaborative objectives may differ, the goal is to build a joint product. Social interaction is an integral part of the process that should be regarded as an outcome of the project (e.g. friendship develops) and not a priority. Professional and personal development skills are gained during the process hence a framework that is supportive of narrative interaction is critical.
Human Capital Theory
Human capital has been defined as the knowledge and skills that individuals acquire and accumulate through formal and non-formal learning (e.g. paideia). Deliberate investment in human capital yields an improvement in nutrition, health and a better quality of life. Productivity increases incrementally supported by knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for economic and social development that engages a more holistic view of human capital. An educated society contributes to social and political processes.
While education levels are viewed as a source of productivity and growth, a distinction must be made between what is termed as general and specific knowledge. General human capital refers to overall education and experience, while specific human capital refers to education relevant for application within a limited activity or context. Individual learning has been identified as an integral component to group function and performance. Novice members develop through knowledge and skills from progressive evolution of practice. Time spent on task performance (Smith & MacGregor, 2009) becomes the praxis of acquired knowledge (e.g. developing the practice of expertise). Specific human capital contributes to the core competence of an organisation (Holton & Yamkovenko, 2008).
Group interaction in a computer mediated environment
Claims that digital natives (Bennet, Maton & Kervin, 2008) use technology in different ways from their predecessors address the need for reforms made based upon using the significant skills that this generation have gained. New technologies facilitate collective learning and provide current access to viewpoints. Artefacts collected during the use of technology (e.g. information shared in messages may contribute to new conceptions and behaviour) have not been fully recognised as significant to the learning process (Aubusson, Schuck & Burden, 2009). Different viewpoints and perspectives can be gained by deconstructing and reflection (e.g. reviewing a recording after the event). The process is both transforming and disruptive. By learning and associating context in different environments individuals are able to interpret and negotiate sense-making from a wider perspective. Simulating activity is an innovative alternative approach to assessment (Cornelius & Marston, 2009). Heuristic learning (Anderberg, Norden & Hansson, 2009) complements sustainable development in concepts such as environmental education, education for sustainable development, global learning and peace education.
Learning conditions
Practical approaches in generating community learning has several functions. Priorities are established according to the groups’ ultimate objective. Task-based, knowledge-based and practice-based learning communities perform different tasks, but commit to the same purpose (e.g. university can be seen to have all three components). The roles and functions that individuals are responsible for within the community dictate the approach taken to achieve the groups’ mission (Jawitz, 2009). As such, learning approaches will vary. Coaching and mentoring (Kyndt, Dochy & Nijs, 2009) are known to be effective strategies for enhancing performance as the differences in knowledge acquisition occur based on individual maturity levels that lead to alternative approaches. Group learning leads to establishing differentiated and specialised knowledge. It increases in 1) memory for task related information and 2) accuracy in completing projects. Members trained on an individual basis do not achieve similar levels of interpersonal congruency. Both positive and negative experience adds to a growing knowledge base. Reflexive practice stimulates situation awareness and self-monitoring regulates subsequent action. Repeated activity embeds knowledge and performance until it becomes an unconscious process.
Technology assists by providing the framework for communication and a source of reference. Community success depends upon an open-learning culture to support activities and discourse. Archives and manuals provide explicit forms of tacit knowledge (Baxter, Connolly & Stansfield, 2009). Adaptive systems benefit the user in the long term by automatically modifying (e.g. last used file is placed in a priority queue system that lists according to frequency of use). Differences in individual levels of information-processing are taken into account when designing curriculum software (e.g. individuals with low working memory fair worse than individuals with a higher capacity when performing a variety of tasks) .
Online group work
As learning is understood to be a social act, there is emphasis on context when conducting learning activities (Laine, et al, 2010). It is an area of research developed by educational psychology, and has primarily been attributed to Vygotsky. Our response to changing systems and requirements must incorporate invented and developed learning systems (Riel & Polin, 2004). In expecting our social systems to learn, we also require that transformation occurs with a minimum of disruption. That is to say that the identity of the social system, and therefore its members, must be retained during transformation. An example is of governments learning for society - a learning system that carries the idea of public learning - the ongoing process of directing investigation as to probable causes, nature and resolution of issues (e.g. World Health Organisation).
Interpersonal congruence or social interaction in group development facilitates group process and enhances performance outcomes. Behavioural and cognitive reflection enhance self-disclosure and shared feedback that leads to self-verification - seeing ourselves in others. The processes of identity negotiation are located within interaction and lead to interpersonal continuity.
Stages of group development
Team learning is more than the aggregate of individual learning - it is an interface between the two that has effects at multiple levels. There is an emphasis on tacit learning that is unstructured and informal, with particular focus on the community (Garavan & McCarthy, 2003). Instead of looking at activities, focus should be moved to the interplay of activities and their groups or contexts (e.g. yoga may be seen as a sequence of practised moves, yet each move may be seen as a complete exercise in meditation). This provides the opportunity for reflection and meaning-making. The dysfunctional aspects of reflection depends on the lack of time an individual has to make decisions that arguably cannot take into consideration all mitigating circumstance and analysis of permutations.
Groups that stay together over an extended period for the purpose of creating an artefact are prone to change naturally. It is useful to be aware of this process of development in order to minimise conflict. There are variations in perspectives on group development literature, but Tuckman’s (1965) model has withstood the test of time. Its simplicity and vivid imagery conjured up by the labels Tuckman used - forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning - have contributed to enduring popularity.
In the forming stage, group members get to know each other. Individuals acquire basic information about each other and become familiar with member personalities and preferences - the processes of self-verification. That is to say that individuals use recognised prior learning (RPL) to interact with group members to identify strengths and role assignations based on cognitive ability. Experience motivates the learning of team members, and viable open communication depends on frequency, depth and quality of dialogue. Shared vision and communication are key in facilitating collective learning. The barriers to online practice and sharing are overcome with the development of interpersonal skills, technology and culture. Trust is a significant attribute when developing and sustaining the networks that support collective learning. Epistemic beliefs concerning environment, current affairs and societal underpinnings bring a sense of the familiar and known that establishes a basic foundation for trust.
Individual differences are revealed during the process of identity building. Individual contributions in collaboration are valued as strengths of the group that work in conjunction with role placement. The program framework provides the support (direction) required. Embedded activities align members to group structure. Characteristics optimal for group work lie in congruence, clarity of purpose, equity and fairness, feedback, empowerment and autonomy (Fornes, Rocco & Wollard, 2008).
In the storming stage, people may come into conflict. The differences people initially found interesting about others may begin to annoy them. Disagreements may arise and some groups cannot survive this stage, especially if there are fundamental discrepancies in values and beliefs. Structure embedded in daily activity reduces self-enhancing tendencies that minimises conflict by allowing working memory to focus on setting learning goals and identifying the value of each individual contribution as it relates to the project. Edward Thorndike understood reinforcement processes (i.e. Laws of Effect and Exercise) that stimulate response. Learning takes place even when the individual is unaware of it (Shanks, 2010). As a result of learning, the normal response to an unconditioned response is evoked by a conditioned response (e.g. Pavlovian context - dogs are conditioned to expect food or a shock on hearing a tone). Achieving goals generates a sense of agency or willfulness in individuals as realisation that their accomplishment is a result of direct action and consequence (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010).
The third stage, norming, finds the group learning to work with each other. Group norms on what is acceptable and what is not, are established. People take on certain roles to keep the group functioning. Successful integration of the individual within the group occurs through socialisation. Constructivism is the theory of learning by observation and interpretation of the world relative to the individual, a concept that allows learners to contextualise experience in order for it to be meaningful/useful. Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, complexity and self-organisation theories. It indicates that individuals learn and work within a network that is constantly changing and developing. New methods adapt to or replace existing models.
In the performing stage, participants work together effectively and efficiently. They complete the task, solve the problem, create new knowledge, or help each other question their beliefs and assumptions. Alignment to group ethics is founded in embedded activities (e.g. the exchange of information and interaction that completes understanding of the task at hand). When individuals have clarity on the outcomes of group work, they are more likely to understand that self-assessment facilitates progression. The sequencing of materials (e.g. the component parts of the task at hand) progress from simple to complex instruction. Individuals are examined to measure their achievement and performance, with constructive feedback monitoring the need for corrective action.
Mature and well-developed systems are defined by the complexity of a group. Expertise in specialisation and the extent to which group members can accurately describe collective knowledge increases the efficiency of the group. Recognition and use of relevant knowledge enhances collective reputation for competency and productivity through accurate understanding in solving complex problems. Experience motivates the learning of team members, and viable open communication depends on frequency, depth and quality of dialogue. Shared vision and communication are key in facilitating collective learning. Issues preventing interpersonal congruence explain the under-development of transactive memory. As identity negotiation leads to self-verification and development of memory systems, interpersonal congruence, behavioural routine and knowledge sharing systems are proposed as key factors in successful outcomes.
Adjourning and mourning ...
Communities can be regarded as environmentally dependent. Success is viewed in Darwinian terms where survival of the fittest determines a healthy competition. Groups that sustain community interest retain a steady flow of participation. Teams that have more than six members are prone to suffer the effects of social loafing, where individuals are lax in responsibility & commitment and undertake a minimal role (Roberts & McInnerney, 2007). Capable members assume the majority of the workload as individuals with less motivation piggyback on the performance of group success. Exploitation reduces individual effort and leads to self-marginalisation (Ruel et. al., 2003).
In situations where unresponsive group member reaction to availability, communication and presence leads to withdrawal, issues need to be resolved in real time. Little or no interaction between members reduces activity & participation levels. Group members develop topical interest elsewhere. Strong leadership, or group ability to form a consensus, averts dithering and re-aligns members.
Individual and group identity
The development of the individual and group transforms when negative belief is overcome, and others are viewed as reliable sources. Group processes are more effective when members have more understanding of each others strengths. Individuals who self-evaluate favourably enhance individual and group performance.
The growth of group culture is a naturally occurring outcome of interaction. Individuals join communities to express themselves and to be with others. Understanding the activities/tasks helps individuals from the outset. Leaders form a pivotal role in facilitating the function and values of building a sense of community. Epistemic beliefs, or the social and formal learning that an individual defines as identity, guides emotional and psychological attachment to the community. Supervisor attributes provide a display of behaviour that individual group members use as a working model to adapt and transform (Fornes, Rocco & Wollard, 2010). Attributes that are congruent with the individual are more likely to be adopted. Commitment to organisational values indicates that team, job and career commitment are closely knit to attitudinal commitment. Mutual rules of engagement and language develop as self-verification (identity-building) progresses.
Stable community equilibrium is achieved through members’ acceptance of culture (Jorgensen & Keller, 2008). A ripple effect is felt through the group as novice members make the transition to conform. Individual creativity in adapting to culture may change or affect the organisation as a result of structured processes.
Group activity may be experienced by individual members in very different ways. According to Wenger (2009), learning together leads to disagreement and the discovery that people see the world very differently. Disagreements and divergent views can either serve to broaden the perspective of all members of a group or pose a threat to the progress of the project. On the other hand, cohesiveness in group activity does not guarantee a better product . As all projects have deadlines, a group must move through each of these phases at an optimum pace. Groups with longer processing time during early developmental stages do not perform well (Choi & Kang, 2009).
Purpose of group work
Knowledge creation, knowledge sharing and feedback
Groups function effectively with clarity of self-disclosure and knowledge sharing (e.g. getting to know each other in a professional capacity). In providing the infrastructure to learn, individual and group learning continues through tacit knowledge that is embedded and interpreted in associative and cognitive knowledge (e.g. by archiving research or narrative communication, it is available for others to share, extend, and improve upon).
London, Polzer and Omoregie (2005) state that group members with high self-esteem accept evaluation on both positive and negative characteristics; those with low self-esteem react well to assessment on positive characteristics. When accepting feedback, group members preferred constructive criticism on unfavourable characteristics, and preferred working with partners who offer suitable comment.
By establishing high interpersonal congruence and feedback, recognised skills and knowledge become available to the group. Transactive memory rests in the belief group members' have about each others' expertise. It is the accumulation of group knowledge that cannot be held by a single individual, and can be drawn upon as a resource. Acquired skills and knowledge are shared and maintained for the benefit of the group. Core members maintain transactive memory. Novice members observe experienced group members to increase individual knowledge. Individuals develop distinct knowledge or specialise within their chosen field. This enhances collective knowledge and individuals function at deeper cognitive levels.
Research on knowledge creation in organisations indicates that learning transpires from the bottom up and is generated in principle by individuals. Learning can be driven by individuals, teams or the organisation where the shared objective is to facilitate change or improvement. Expediency and efficiency are used as typical and universal measures of effectiveness and success. Bureaucracy handles change with efficiency, while systems cope with delay. This creates a bottleneck in gathering new information and knowledge, in raising learning levels and in the application of wisdom. Human fallibility is overcome through dehumanisation processes. Dehumanisation leads to aggressive behaviour and is significant in altering perception. Major barriers to change lie in commitment and active participation (Dhir, 2006).
As organisations are built on values, norms, traditions and other traits of individual members, standardisation facilitated by policy and procedure are established as best practice. Individuals with different functions encounter different learning conditions (e.g. the different role assignations of a research analyst and a secretary). Improving practices requires reflection on feedback and knowledge acquisition which undergirds learning. Adaptation and innovation depends upon constantly revising tools and finding solutions through reflective and reflexive practices (Johansson & Heide, 2008). Research suggests that the main barrier to new thinking is ontological and epistemological commitments, or the adherence to prior learning.
Group work for assessment activities
In this case study, students were asked to form groups and support group members throughout the course in sharing ideas; by demonstrating skills in facilitating and managing an online learning event; and, in preparing and presenting a seminar paper. Collaboration in the preparation and presentation of both event and seminar paper was encouraged.
In some communities, a large proportion of assessment is significantly linked to individual input to projects. Online environments are an effective setting as artefacts are documented or archived providing easy access for review. Assessment may include self-relfexive offerings (e.g. blogs) that are submitted.
Techniques that enhance self, peer and group assessment benefit both teacher and student, as individuals are aware of all contributions made. As assessment strategies have been developed to assist peer review, the information is used to help assess learning outcomes. Popular rating systems are anonymous and allows the teacher to maintain the responsibility for allocating marks using student feedback to implement reward systems.
Anonymity allows for student introspection if the criteria & rating system are clarified. Thompson and McGregor (2009) suggest that student feedback altruistically facilitates and improves group performance. Group consensus promotes team spirit that results in higher order thinking and the flow of discourse. Knowledge gathering acquires richer detail and focus, enabling succinct participation and activity. Tasks are performed with clarity as individuals understand and undertake the responsibility to contribute with more accuracy.
A collective idea is greater than the sum of its parts...
New technologies facilitate collective learning and provide current access to viewpoints. Artefacts are the data that allow individuals to access different viewpoints and perspectives gained by deconstructing and reviewing the recording after the event. The process is both transformative and disruptive as individuals learn through successive failure. By learning and associating context in different environments individuals are able to interpret and negotiate sense-making from a wider perspective.
Reflection time is required to understand how the individual can personally apply what has been learned to monitor situation awareness and make changes that prepare the sequence of progress. Internal motivation comes from desire and interest that can be self-regulated and encouraged though dialogic interchange with others of similar experience, aptitude and capability.
Assumptions about group work, group dynamics, roles and responsibilities
Individual presence and group identity are significantly linked. Part of current research stems from inception in the 1960's (Tuttle, 2002) - an era that had a very different feel to the way life is conducted in the 21st century. Lines of thinking were much more dispassionate and many theories that started out strong cognitively have had adverse behavioural consequences (e.g. dehumanisation). The notion that we must have roles should be identifiably linked to individual knowledge and strengths. Individual knowledge is considered data that the group makes knowledge from. Goal directed pursuits are unconsciously activated when individuals are placed in situations/context that support these goals. Three concepts required for self-regulation are:
- self-confidence;
- confidence in self-other relationships; and
- self-development.
In order to set goals to develop a professional unity, individual group members monitor situation awareness in order to clarify the end objective in a manner that sustains goal-setting behaviour. Goals emerge from participation of knowledge networks. The context itself is representative of intent, thus it is the actions, procedures, situations and objects that help manifest the goal. Goal-directed behaviour is also activated by influences external to the individual (e.g. viewing and aspiring to role models). Knowledge networks motivate individuals to act with intention. Therefore, goal representations can be primed to interact with behavioural and contextual information.
An element of research in unconscious goal pursuits deals with habit forming processes. It is the identification and practice of taking effective action in relevant situations. Unconscious instigation of a goal occurs when goal-directed behaviour has been performed frequently and is a habit. Self-evaluation is critical when reflecting on performance. Individuals find it easier to accurately self-assess when the focus is on specific skills rather than general ability (London, 2003). Areas of difficulty in self-assessment occur because of leniency, self-enhancement motives and self-delusion.
Recognised traits of self-evaluation are:
- self-esteem - individual self-worth;
- generalised self-efficacy - how versatile an individual feels;
- the tendency to be positive or optimistic; and
- the locus of control - internal factors that influence behaviour.
Communication of self-concept is required in self-verification. Self-verification processes benefit behaviour retrospectively. Group processes are more effective when members have more understanding of each others strengths. Constructive feedback is critical as it creates a favourable image and protects self-esteem. The information is used for personal development allowing adaptation or transformation in behaviour. New learning goals are set, regulating and exploring new behaviour to determine the direction for learning. Negative experiences that promote self-reflection are valuable in creating learning opportunities. Communication streams allow gathering of information on self and others' view of self. Building stronger relationship ties leads to determining intervention practice when facing alienating behaviour amongst group members.
Choi and Kang (2009) suggest Activity System, proposed by Engestrom, as a unit of analysis to understand learner behaviours in an online collaborative environment. The types of behaviour associated with group work define individual strengths in sharing, organisation, the division of labour, and having confidence to ask questions. A strong internal relationship between the individual and her community develops from a sense of belonging fostered by empathic attitudes and values. Responsibility and commitment are co-dependent attributes of reflected attitude. Groups that perform effectively, or are perceived as high functioning, integrate fully and start on tasks immediately whereas perceived low functioning groups lack organisational skills that allow them to generate and sustain the motivation to persist in full participation.
The most frequently observed conflicting factors resided between subjects and the tools used in a capacity considered inefficient; that lacked resources; where individuals were untrained; were subject to mismanaged technology; and, network failure. The next most frequently observed conflicting factors that occurred between the individual and output stems from an inability to collate enough information to produce a relevant and meaningful document. Impediments to achieving this outcome include distractions of a personal nature, and low levels of individual connection to material.
Chiu and Hsiao (2009) conducted a study on the differences that group work in an online collaborative environment had among elementary school students. Student were randomly divided into groups of three members each and tasked with creating a concept map entirely through online collaboration. Cluster analysis identified distinct patterns in group behaviour. The majority of students were categorised as passive or reticent and displayed very little participatory behaviour. Positive scaling in behavioural attitudes were shown in groups that conducted discourse in knowledge gathering (e.g. discussing concepts that relate to tasks), and in groups that had full participation and focus on management and coordination of tasks rather than on the task. Groups that focused on developing social aspects of interaction were seen to be off-task. As overlapping task knowledge occurs, less information is retained and completed tasks are inaccurate.
These studies indicate that benefits of collaborative learning do not happen automatically and a sound instructional design is needed to make it happen (Wang, 2010). To facilitate interaction and improve the quality of discourse, some training or intervention may be necessary.
Sun, Cheng, Lin and Wang (2006) recommend that opportunities for interaction need to be specifically developed for the online environment. Space and time are reflective values of society that do not limit the learning period. Individuals are free to access resources at any time that is convenient to personal schedules. Similarly, isolation (e.g. due to race, gender or profession), or geographical remoteness is remedied through available asynchronous or synchronous communication.
In a collaborative group project, there is no formal leadership structure to start. As the group progresses with the task, members who contribute more or have higher technical competencies assume the responsibility of leadership (Curtis & Lawson, 2001; Lea, Rogers, & Postmes, 2002 cited in Wang, 2010). Formal and vocational institutions of higher education have acknowledged that while experience and proactive behaviour plays an important part in professional development, individuals have not been taught how to manage (Blenkinsopp & Stalker, 2004). Practitioners make the transition to academia, and become role models by using practical experience to develop solutions within the community. Students who have access to subject matter experts (e.g. working alongside scientists) are more likely to accept group culture and ethics (e.g. legitimate peripheral participation).
Expertise defines self-views and identities
Kelly's (2009) work on multi-ethnic student groups reveal that ethnic values include the epistemic beliefs of heritage and tradition. Cultures where education is focused on rote memorisation (Andersson & Hellberg, 2009) produce generations of students who have aligned themselves to this dedicated approach to learning. In groups where ethnicity is homogenous, innovation is restricted to epistemic values so groups may be seen to lack creativity. Groups that have diversity are recognised for their capacity to draw upon multiple perspectives (e.g. UNESCO). However, as blended learning depends on technology as a reliable resource in education, and as rote memorisation is phased out of formal learning, collaborative work will instigate the value of critical analysis. For example, in Australia students of music (TaikOz) were introduced to a traditional form of drumming from Japan. Their study of music included deconstructing the culture, the environment, and the purpose of daiko to create their own knowledge, expressed in their creative variation of music from an alternative culture.
Social implications
Social factors are considered significant when studying task and activity performance. Social cognition is the identified way in which individuals make sense of each other. Current research has taken particular focus in considering human characteristics when designing IT systems. Research on cognitive paradigms in the 1960's was undertaken by "cold, affectless thinking" representative of the era (Proctor & Vu, 2010; Tuttle, 2002). Research on the cognitive aspects of emotional vulnerability has grown extensively since then, and has kept abreast by analysing selective processes of emotional information. Mental workload assessment has received general acceptance when evaluating how new tasks impact the effects of different design elements or exploring the consequences of using different levels of automation. Interfaces are designed to interact and adapt to individual habits and performance needs.
Learning in a social context is often referred to as situated action. The perspective is drawn from the foundation of anthropological and sociological research. The aim is not just to build models of knowledge and action, but to explore the relationship between knowing and acting as it applies to context or circumstance.
Issues with group work
Buddy systems have been devised to use the strengths of students to initiate cooperative learning. Students who display strong extrovert characteristics, but who lag academically are typically well suited to peer pairing with individuals who fare better academically and are introverts. The community can focus on assessment of both academic progression and affiliation to group culture. For example, if learning is not an individual priority, community spirit links the individual to an environment that is supported by academia (e.g. an environment that supports goal-setting behaviour). The effects of mentoring positively increase assessment rates.
While results seem to justify the means, mentoring programs are both time and energy intensive. Observations include bridging social patterns (e.g. the buddy system) to satisfy intellectual incentive. Students who are more well-versed academically may feel stifled without higher levels of stimulation and leave assigned peers in favour of other groupings. Empathic communication determines whether students will use the pairing as a bonding experience even if the benefits are not academically assessed (Mandzuk, Hasinoff & Seifert, 2003).
If individuals are uncertain of the concept 'discourse analysis', the manner in which individual communication is understood within context and intellect (Nguyen, Terloewb & Pilot, 2006), then a strong support structure is required as they have identified and explicit ways of understanding knowledge gathering and work towards precise objectives that have been clearly defined. Tasks have clarity, and eliminates the need for higher order thought (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005; Munro-Smith, 2003).
Conclusion
Regardless of the situation or environment a group may be in (e.g. academic, professional), individuals are sentient beings. Theory helps align, but systems that are embedded within daily activity are the foundation of structured learning. Our basic work premise is to "See One, Do One, Teach One". Translational learning, or learning that significantly correlates to behavioural change, occurs in cyclical patterns. Single-loop learning educates individuals in the ‘know what’ that becomes a mechanistic behavioural output; double-loop learning embeds reflection revealing the ‘know how’; and triple loop learning divulges ‘know why’.
Particular attention to working as communities of practice (COP) within groups greatly enhance the learning community. What is needed to understand the practice of practice is the language that identifies tacit and informal learning (Jorgensen & Keller, 2008). Novices who join communities must not only consider their role in a professional capacity, but understand tacit culture that is displayed by members. Working memory is easily distracted, indicating that goal-setting is a crucial component of collective consciousness. Without clear targets, both personal and professional, individuals are unable to identify their locus of interest. Situational activity facilitates subliminal priming that leads to increased opportunities for relevant meaning-making. Role models provide examples of best practice living knowledge that complement static knowledge.
As online learning develops from the competencies and skills that are required for lifelong learning, communities would benefit from initiating and encouraging active participation as part of self-directed learning. Methods of assessment that measure traditional learning on an individual basis should recognise different ways of recognising competencies. Traditional methods of evaluating knowledge acquisition have primarily been unconcerned with more than static delivery of data.
Transformational learning adjusts the perspective of assessment. As new knowledge generates innovation, the variables of what has been learned must be considered. A well-designed framework that sustains daily activity embeds a culture of clarity. The positive movement towards mobile learning has resolved many dysfunctional issues as asynchronous communication negates the need for immediate contact, thus the space and time needed for reflexive practice is created. Archived artefacts build up bifurcated developmental lines: the community generates practical discourse, and individuals apply cumulative knowledge to develop further insights.
Self-verification processes are of primary importance in group activity as trust and unity must develop before collaborative sharing can take place. Knowing team member abilities creates transactive memory that is the summative knowledge of group potential. The strength of transactive memory depends on the prevalence and active participation of individual members that attracts a shared vision. Positive self-evaluation and self-regulation diffuses the turbulence that can occur as a result of close proximity. However, it should be noted that interpersonal congruence is not a measure of performance, but an approach to professional unity.
Sustainable development of communities depends on the capacity of individuals to adapt to cultural principles and values. As learning is generated from the bottom up, accepting individual innovation generates the clarity to understand that diverse perspectives, framed within a dedicated context, introduce a multiplicity of approaches for solving a range of issues.
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Andersson, P. and Hellberg, K. (2009). Trajectories in teacher education: Recognising prior learning in practice. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 37(3) pp. 271-282. Retrieved on July 4, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/45962_751304989_913338512.pdf
Aubusson, P., Schuck, S. and Burden, K. (2009). Mobile learning for teacher professional learning: benefits, obstacles and issues. ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 17(3), 233 — 247. Retrieved on May 31, 20110 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/ 451711_751304989_915792534?.pdf
Bennett, S., Maton, K. and Kervin, L. (2008). The 'digital natives' debate: A critical review of the evidence. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(5), 775-786. Retrieved April 4, 2010, from http://www.pgce.soton.ac.uk/ict/NewPGCE/PDFs/ Digital%20Natives%20Debate%20Critical%20review%20of%20evidence.pdf
Baxter, G. J., Connolly, T. M. and Stansfield, M. (2009). How organisations learn: an information systems development perspective. Learn Inq 3, pp. 25 - 46. Retrieved on April 24, 2010 from http:// springerlink.metapress.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/content/p367781448550806/fulltext,pdf
Blenkinsopp, J. and Stalker, B. (2004). Identity work in the transition from manager to management academic. Management Decision, 42(3/4), pp 418 - 429. Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0010420305.pdf
Blenkinsopp, J. and Stalker, B. (2004). Identity work in the transition from manager to management academic. Management Decision, 42(3/4), pp 418 - 429. Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0010420305.pdf
Chiu, C.-H., and Hsiao, H.-F. (2010). Group differences in computer supported collaborative learning: Evidence from patterns of Taiwanese students’ online communication. Computers & Education, 54(2), 427-435. Retrieved on September 13, 2010 from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6VCJ-4X84J9H-3-5&_cdi=5956&_user=1472215&_pii=S0360131509002206&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_coverDate=02/28/2010&_sk=999459997&wchp=dGLzVtz-zSkWA&md5=95f361d87dfc2e57e290691b8f9ad9d4&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
Choi, H. and Kang, M. (2009). Applying an activity system to online collaborative group work analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(5), pp. 776-795. Retrieved on September 13, 2010 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=7&hid=111&sid=b34e12b9-cdc1-4e82-8373-9e02d028686b%40sessionmgr111
Cornelius, S. and Marston, P. (2009). Towards an understanding of the virtual context in mobile learning. ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 17(3), pp.161 - 172. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/ 434690_751304989_915792456?.pdf
Dhir, K. S. (2006). Corporate communication through nonviolent rhetoric: Environmental, agency and methodological prerequisites. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 11(3) pp. 249-266. Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from www.emeraldinsight.com/1356-3289.htm
Dijksterhuis, A. and Aarts, H. (2010). Goals, Attention and (Un)Consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology, Vol 61, pp. 467-490. Retrieved on June 27, 2010 from http://arjournals.annualreviews.org.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100445
Ferili. S., Basile, T. M. A., Di Mauro, N. and Esposito, F. (2005). On the LearnAbility of Abstraction Theories fom Observations for Relational Learning. ECML LNAI, 3720, pp. 120 - 132. Retrieved on April 24, 2010 from http://springerlink.metapress.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/content/710282w72g4n4864/fulltext.pdf
Fornes, S. L., Rocco, T. S. and Wollard, K. K. (2008). Workplace Commitment: A Conceptual Model Developed from Integrative Review of the Research. Human Resource Development Review, 7, pp. 339-358. Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/7/3/339
Garavan, T. N. & McCarthy, A. (2003). Collective Learning Processes and Human Resource Development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, Vol. 5(1), 64-83. Retrieved on April, 4, 2010 from http://adh.sagepub.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/cgi/reprint/5/1/64
Holton, E. F. and Yamkovenko, B. (2008). Strategic Intellectual Capital Development: A Defining Paradigm for HRD? Human Resource Development Review, 7(270). Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/7/3/270
Jawitz, J. (2009). Academic Identities and communities of practice in a professional discipline. Teaching in Higher Education, 14(3), pp. 241 - 251. Retrieved on August 7, 2010 from http://www.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/openurl?genre=article&issn=1356-2517&volume=14&issue=3&spage=251
Johansson, C. and Heide, M. (2008). Speaking of change: three communication approaches in studies of organizational change. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 13(3) pp. 288 - 305. Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jspcontentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/ Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle?/Pdf/1680130304.pdf
Choi, H. and Kang, M. (2009). Applying an activity system to online collaborative group work analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(5), pp. 776-795. Retrieved on September 13, 2010 from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=7&hid=111&sid=b34e12b9-cdc1-4e82-8373-9e02d028686b%40sessionmgr111
Cornelius, S. and Marston, P. (2009). Towards an understanding of the virtual context in mobile learning. ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 17(3), pp.161 - 172. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/ 434690_751304989_915792456?.pdf
Dhir, K. S. (2006). Corporate communication through nonviolent rhetoric: Environmental, agency and methodological prerequisites. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 11(3) pp. 249-266. Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from www.emeraldinsight.com/1356-3289.htm
Dijksterhuis, A. and Aarts, H. (2010). Goals, Attention and (Un)Consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology, Vol 61, pp. 467-490. Retrieved on June 27, 2010 from http://arjournals.annualreviews.org.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100445
Ferili. S., Basile, T. M. A., Di Mauro, N. and Esposito, F. (2005). On the LearnAbility of Abstraction Theories fom Observations for Relational Learning. ECML LNAI, 3720, pp. 120 - 132. Retrieved on April 24, 2010 from http://springerlink.metapress.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/content/710282w72g4n4864/fulltext.pdf
Fornes, S. L., Rocco, T. S. and Wollard, K. K. (2008). Workplace Commitment: A Conceptual Model Developed from Integrative Review of the Research. Human Resource Development Review, 7, pp. 339-358. Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/7/3/339
Garavan, T. N. & McCarthy, A. (2003). Collective Learning Processes and Human Resource Development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, Vol. 5(1), 64-83. Retrieved on April, 4, 2010 from http://adh.sagepub.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/cgi/reprint/5/1/64
Holton, E. F. and Yamkovenko, B. (2008). Strategic Intellectual Capital Development: A Defining Paradigm for HRD? Human Resource Development Review, 7(270). Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/7/3/270
Jawitz, J. (2009). Academic Identities and communities of practice in a professional discipline. Teaching in Higher Education, 14(3), pp. 241 - 251. Retrieved on August 7, 2010 from http://www.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/openurl?genre=article&issn=1356-2517&volume=14&issue=3&spage=251
Johansson, C. and Heide, M. (2008). Speaking of change: three communication approaches in studies of organizational change. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 13(3) pp. 288 - 305. Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jspcontentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/ Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle?/Pdf/1680130304.pdf
Jorgenssen, K. M. and Keller, H. D. (2008). The Contribution of Communities of Practice to Human Resource Development: Learning as Negotiating Identity. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10, pp. 525. Retrieved on April 4, 2010 from http://adh.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/4/525
Kelly, P. (2009). Group work and multicultural management education. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 20, 80-102. Retrieved Aug 3, 2010, from http://ezproxy.usq.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=36449721&site=ehost-live. doi: 10.1080/08975930802671273
Kyndt, E., Dochy, F. and Nijs, H. (2009). Learning conditions for non-formal and informal workplace learning. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(5) pp369 - 383. Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle?/Pdf/0860210501.pdf
Laine, T. H. , Vinni, M. , Sedano, C. I. and Joy, M. (2010). On designing a pervasive mobile learning platform. ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 18(1), pp. 3 - 17. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/
15163_751304989_921310039.pdf
London, M. (2003). Antecedents and Consequences of Self-Verification: Implications for Individual and Group Development. Human Resource Development Review, 2(273). Retrieved April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/cgi/reprint/2/3/273
London, M., Polzer, J. T. and Omoregie, H. (2005). Interpersonal Congruence, Transactive Memory, and Feedback Processes: An Integrative Model of Group Learning. Human Development Resource Review, 114(4). Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/4/2/114
Mandzuk, D., Hasinoff, S., & Seifert, K. (2003). Inside a Student Cohort: Teacher Education from a Social Capital Perspective. Canadian Journal of Education, 28 (1 & 2), pp. 168 -184. Retrieved August 14, 2010, from http://www.csse.ca/CJE/Articles/FullText/CJE28-1-2/CJE28-1-2-mandzuk.pdf
Nguyen, P-M., Terlouwb, C., and Pilot, A. (2006). Culturally appropriate pedagogy: the case of group learning in a Confucian Heritage Culture context. Intercultural Education, 17(1), pp. 1–19.
Retrieved August 3, 2010, from http://ezproxy.usq.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=20189829&site=ehost-live
doi: 10.1080/14675980500502172
Proctor, R. W. and Vu, K. L. (2010). Cumulative Knowledge and Progress in Human Factors. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, pp. 623-651. Retrieved on June 27, 2010 from http://arjournals.annualreviews.org.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100325
Riel, M., and Polin, L. (2004). Online learning communities: Common ground and critical differences in designing technical environments. In Barab, S.A., Kling, R. & Gray, J.H. (Eds.), Designing for virtual communities in the service of learning (pp. 16-50). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Roberts, T. S., and McInnerney, J. M. (2007). Seven Problems of Online Group Learning (and Their Solutions). Educational Technology & Society, 10 (4), 257-268. Retrieved on August 3, 2010, from http://www.ifets.info/download_pdf.php?j_id=37&a_id=810
Shanks, D. R. (2010). Learning: From Association to Cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, pp. 273-301. Retrieved on June 27, 2010 from http://arjournals.annualreviews.org.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100519
Smith, B. L. and MacGregor, J. (2009). Learning communities and the quest for quality. Quality Assurance in Education, 17(2), pp. 118 - 139. Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/1200170202.pdf
Sun, P.-C., Cheng, H. K., Lin, T.-C., and Wang, F.-S. (2006). A design to promote group learning in e-learning: Experiences from the field. Computers and Education, 50(3), 661-677. Retrieved on September 13, 2010 from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6VCJ-4M6SB9G-1-T&_cdi=5956&_user=1472215&_pii=S0360131506001187&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_coverDate=04/30/2008&_sk=999499996&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkWA&md5=7a29096afc1184ab099c8a364d46d3e3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
Thompson, D., and McGregor, I. (2009). Online self- and peer assessment for groupwork. Education and Training, 51(5/6), 434-447. Retrieved August 3, 2010, from www.emeraldinsight.com/0040-0912.htm doi: 10.1108/00400910910987237
Tuttle, M. (2002). A Review and Critique of Van Maanen and Schein's "Toward a Theory of Organizational Socialization" and Implications for Human Resource Management. Human Resource Development Review, 66(1). Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1/1/66
Wenger, E., White, N. (2009). Digital habitats: stewarding technology for communities. Portland, Oregon: Cpsquare.
Kelly, P. (2009). Group work and multicultural management education. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 20, 80-102. Retrieved Aug 3, 2010, from http://ezproxy.usq.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=36449721&site=ehost-live. doi: 10.1080/08975930802671273
Kyndt, E., Dochy, F. and Nijs, H. (2009). Learning conditions for non-formal and informal workplace learning. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(5) pp369 - 383. Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle?/Pdf/0860210501.pdf
Laine, T. H. , Vinni, M. , Sedano, C. I. and Joy, M. (2010). On designing a pervasive mobile learning platform. ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 18(1), pp. 3 - 17. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/
15163_751304989_921310039.pdf
London, M. (2003). Antecedents and Consequences of Self-Verification: Implications for Individual and Group Development. Human Resource Development Review, 2(273). Retrieved April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/cgi/reprint/2/3/273
London, M., Polzer, J. T. and Omoregie, H. (2005). Interpersonal Congruence, Transactive Memory, and Feedback Processes: An Integrative Model of Group Learning. Human Development Resource Review, 114(4). Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/4/2/114
Mandzuk, D., Hasinoff, S., & Seifert, K. (2003). Inside a Student Cohort: Teacher Education from a Social Capital Perspective. Canadian Journal of Education, 28 (1 & 2), pp. 168 -184. Retrieved August 14, 2010, from http://www.csse.ca/CJE/Articles/FullText/CJE28-1-2/CJE28-1-2-mandzuk.pdf
Nguyen, P-M., Terlouwb, C., and Pilot, A. (2006). Culturally appropriate pedagogy: the case of group learning in a Confucian Heritage Culture context. Intercultural Education, 17(1), pp. 1–19.
Retrieved August 3, 2010, from http://ezproxy.usq.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=20189829&site=ehost-live
doi: 10.1080/14675980500502172
Proctor, R. W. and Vu, K. L. (2010). Cumulative Knowledge and Progress in Human Factors. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, pp. 623-651. Retrieved on June 27, 2010 from http://arjournals.annualreviews.org.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100325
Riel, M., and Polin, L. (2004). Online learning communities: Common ground and critical differences in designing technical environments. In Barab, S.A., Kling, R. & Gray, J.H. (Eds.), Designing for virtual communities in the service of learning (pp. 16-50). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Roberts, T. S., and McInnerney, J. M. (2007). Seven Problems of Online Group Learning (and Their Solutions). Educational Technology & Society, 10 (4), 257-268. Retrieved on August 3, 2010, from http://www.ifets.info/download_pdf.php?j_id=37&a_id=810
Shanks, D. R. (2010). Learning: From Association to Cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, pp. 273-301. Retrieved on June 27, 2010 from http://arjournals.annualreviews.org.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100519
Smith, B. L. and MacGregor, J. (2009). Learning communities and the quest for quality. Quality Assurance in Education, 17(2), pp. 118 - 139. Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/1200170202.pdf
Sun, P.-C., Cheng, H. K., Lin, T.-C., and Wang, F.-S. (2006). A design to promote group learning in e-learning: Experiences from the field. Computers and Education, 50(3), 661-677. Retrieved on September 13, 2010 from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6VCJ-4M6SB9G-1-T&_cdi=5956&_user=1472215&_pii=S0360131506001187&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_coverDate=04/30/2008&_sk=999499996&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkWA&md5=7a29096afc1184ab099c8a364d46d3e3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
Thompson, D., and McGregor, I. (2009). Online self- and peer assessment for groupwork. Education and Training, 51(5/6), 434-447. Retrieved August 3, 2010, from www.emeraldinsight.com/0040-0912.htm doi: 10.1108/00400910910987237
Tuttle, M. (2002). A Review and Critique of Van Maanen and Schein's "Toward a Theory of Organizational Socialization" and Implications for Human Resource Management. Human Resource Development Review, 66(1). Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1/1/66
Wenger, E., White, N. (2009). Digital habitats: stewarding technology for communities. Portland, Oregon: Cpsquare.
