Ala-Mutka, K., Punie, Y. and Ferrrari, A. (2009). Review of Learning in Online Networks and Communities

Ala-Mutka, K., Punie, Y. and Ferrrari, A. (2009).  Review of Learning in Online Networks and Communities.  EC-TEL 2009, LNCS 5794, pp. 350–364.  Retrieved on April 24, 2010 from http://springerlink.metapress.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/content/
966w5h5538027703/fulltext.pdf


Introduction
Cumulative research on lifelong learning suggests that it has significant impact upon contemporary society.  Jobs and skills are being redefined and Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari acknowledge that by 2020, Europe's labour market will be under qualified.


An increase in social computing platforms provide greater access to connect with each other.  A variety of collaborative initiatives are used for activities that span across work, leisure, learning and civic domains.  Innovative approaches to learning are emerging.  The authors question what leads to the emergence and success of learning in ICT and how can it promote quality and innovation for lifelong learning.


Relevant Theories and Concepts
Learning through communities or technology is not a new phenomenon Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari state.  The novelty lies in opportunity that is no longer restricted to physical access.


Learning in social context
Constructivist theories are supported with an emphasis on active learning and interaction with the environment.  Assimilation of new knowledge and accommodation of existing knowledge gives structure to new situations.  The authors refer to Kolb who describes learning as an ongoing cycle of a sequence of phases where concrete experiences generate an opportunity for observation and reflection.

• Networked learning - the process of knowledge construction through social activity.  Highlights the importance of discussion and the creation of shared meaning.  The 'zone of proximal development' describes knowledge that is gained through expert guidance.  Shared culture and language supports the process.  Through tangible communication, meaning is negotiated.  The authors emphasise Bandura's work on observation and modelling of behaviours.  Experience can be gained through observation.
• Situated learning - results from learning through activity, context and culture and may occur unintentionally.  Participation is a process of appropriation and transformation.  Joint activities can influence modes of understanding and participation.  Novice learners acquire useful strategies and knowledge.
• Informal settings - learning is the responsibility of the individual.  Intrinsic motivation is reliant upon metacognition and strategic action.  Personal goals promote learning, but may be in opposition to the goals of the environment.  

Approaching learning in online networks
Traditional learning theories were developed pre-ICT and consequently do not take account of a network as the basis for learning processes.  This age of information requires individuals to update knowledge through building, maintaining and using connections.


Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari use Communities of Inquiry (COI) as a framework to develop online collaborative learning processes.  Based on Dewey's problem-based learning cycle, three elements (social, cognitive and teaching presence) are key to encourage interaction and structure.  Reflective discussions are required when developing approaches to real inquiries.


The authors include activity theory as a complementary framework to approach online collaboration.  Actions and interactions are viewed from historical and cultural perspectives.  The division of labour, rules and instruments actively engage a transformation process.  Analysis of elements and relationships facilitates understanding and development of the activity holistically.


Emerging Online Networks and Communities
The widespread use of ICT has enabled opportunities for individuals to express and build identity through connection and mutual reliance of others.  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari review current literature that suggests three elements that drive participation:

• common interest;
• common activity;
• social connection.

A common interest
Communities form for various reasons - topics may relate to professional interests, personal well-being, culture and learning interests.  Connection to similar others increases support and knowledge not only for novices, Ala-Mutka et al. suggest.  Participation promotes updated information and facilitates informed decision-making processes.


A common activity
Situated and social learning through use of interactive tools to perform a joint task provides a platform for creating and building the collaborative product or resource.  Communities offer members the skills to perform.  Experts in the communities are used as models for practice and feedback.


Social connection
Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari indicate from their review that most individuals join communities to express themselves and to be with others.  Media sharing, social networking, gaming and blogs are popular choices for pursuing personal objectives.  Social computing is beneficial for developing and sharing knowledge.


Closed and open communities
Organisations facilitate work processes and social integration by providing online platforms.  It is generally understood that learning in organisations is conducted through informal transactions.  Closed communities can enhance efficacy and trust through sharing.  Open communities have a more diverse range of participants allowing contribution to the development of creativity in innovation and ideas.  Both methods share the objective of personal development and community development to achieve a collective goal.


Learning in Online Networks and Communities
Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari suggest that while the individual is not motivated to join a community from a desire to learn, transformation occurs from meaning-making processes and enhanced skill sets.  Connection to others provides strong emotional and cognitive support that increases effectiveness.


Online collaboration and networking incorporates learning key competencies for lifelong learning.  Apart from increasing collaborative and analytical skills, individuals learn how to be part of a community that requires a skill set and knowledge of values, practices and attitudes.


ICT  is a method that enables new ways of encouraging reflection, experimentation and creativity.  It supports social experiences that differ from face-to-face encounters and tracks the explicit and implicit knowledge that results.


New ways and skills to learn
ICT is seen to enhance personal creativity and responsibility to learning.  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari see the diverse availability of resources to draft and explore ideas as a means to promote critical and analytical thinking.  Global communities encourage an awareness of cultural differences.  Participation provides expression to negotiate meaning-making.  The authors quote percentages of individuals who are motivated to take action as a result of shared communication.  Online profiles provide new platforms for identity building and development.  New stories are new sources for reflection and construction of life.


Different social contexts for learning
Technology in social communication allows collaboration on a global scale.  Communities of practice enable knowledge gathering for novice practitioners and to connect quickly with experts.  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari propose that traditional education establishments target development and measurement without encouraging informal interaction and collaboration.  Online collaborative objectives differ.  The goal is to build a joint product, with social interaction seen as a key element and not a result.  Professional and personal development skills are gained.  Support is crucial to learning and development.


New ways to access and structure learning
Matching personal preferences to learning is enabled by a variety of multimedia resources.  Networking opportunities support developing knowledge management skills.  Established policies and protocols in communities provide structure for novices.  Learning and skills are recognised in members through levels of responsibility within the community.  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari indicate the proportion of members who don't actively participate in discussions still contribute by propagating and transferring knowledge.  Observation is significant to active participation.


Challenges
Learning skills for self-regulated learning requires support and structure.  With the internet, new opportunities are presented for knowledge gathering and analysis of discourse.  Organisations that are able to incorporate these new learning styles are more likely to transform and develop.


Access and skills for digital participation
ICT and internet access remains a problem Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari indicate.  A three month study of trends in Europe indicate 62% of EU27 population had accessed these resources.  Language is seen to be a barrier, the authors indicate.  English is the lingua-franca, education and professional levels of social groups influence acceptance or exclusion from the environment.  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari state that effective participation can only occur when individuals are conversant with digital skills and critical analysis of resources that do not result from basic use of ICT.


Skills and interest for learning
Perceptions of learning may not reflect or correspond to performance.  Learners have perceived collaborative knowledge gained in joint productions as ineffective.  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari suggest that individuals join communities without strong self-regulation to learning.  Frameworks are needed to provide and support learning interest.  Studies indicate learners with low prior knowledge improve when given structure.


Effectiveness of community for learning
Moderated discussion facilitates knowledge construction.  The authors state that knowledge that supports identity and practices of the community are more likely to be adopted than knowledge that challenges.  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari suggest dedicated facilitators to ensure the quality of learning in a community to maintain knowledge construction.  Further studies on sustaining communities through renewal in structure and content, and in developing effective models are needed to guide novices.


Implications for education and training
Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari propose that as online learning develops competencies and skills that are required for lifelong learning, institutions would benefit from initiating and encouraging active participation as part of self-directed learning.  Methods of assessment that measure traditional learning on an individual basis should recognise different ways of recognising competencies.


Conclusions
Online social contexts are significant for supporting the learning of contemporary skills and knowledge.  Personal development through collaboration enhances learning of transversal professional skills.  Learning trajectories are managed through different networking opportunities.  Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari indicate that it is becoming increasingly important for formal education to prepare learners for the relevant capabilities to actively participate.


Basic and advanced digital learning supports people with initial low level skills and learning capacities.  Improving awareness and appreciation of learning also supports and encourages developing effective best practice models for novice practitioners.  Further study on the limitations and opportunities of online communities will reveal the full extent and potential of online learning networks.


Ala-Mutka, Punie and Ferrari accept that online communities exist separately from formal education although similar topics are covered.  Integration of these two entities would require innovative transformation of practice through:

• new technology; and
• valuing different forms of learning.

Teachers are seen as the vital link to support changing education and training practice.  Professional communities that support their work and professional development would benefit from special attention.

Baxter, G. J., Connolly, T. M. & Stansfield, M. (2009). How organisations learn: an information systems development perspective

Baxter, G. J., Connolly, T. M. and Stansfield, M. (2009).  How organisations learn: an information systems development perspective.  Learn Inq 3, pp. 25 - 46.  Retrieved on April 24, 2010 from http://springerlink.metapress.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/
content/p367781448550806/fulltext.pdf


Introduction
Although theories and models of organisational learning have been proposed extensively, none have the edge over others.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate this may be due to multiple perspectives and interpretations.  Three categories that are most prevalent:

• learning as an individual activity - the individual is primarily responsible for learning within the organisation;
• collective and social learning - the predominant factor in organisational multi-level learning and is strongly related to communities of practice; and
• debated theory - can organisations learn as living entities.

The authors' support the view that organisations can learn, and outline the procedure in this paper.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield agree that social reality is a construct but do not agree that organisational learning is influenced and developed by social environment.  Individuals and organisations learn through mutual didactic support.

1. Relationship and association that facilitates individual and organisational learning is discussed.
2. Information systems development (ISD) projects can be used for multi-level learning.
3. Evaluation of organisational learning gives direction to implement measuring learning levels achieved.

What is an organisation?
Concepts and ideologies range according to interpretation and perspective on raised view points.  The authors show preference for Cook and Yanow, and Simon who view the organisation as a system of interrelated roles and cultures.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield use this generally accepted outlook as a basis to question who learns in an organisation and the concept of organisational learning.


Influential work on learning within a social environment has been further developed for analysis in individual patterns of work, communication and social hierarchy formation.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield observe the structure of social groups and the activities that bind them.  Language is seen as a key aspect of communication and interaction, and communities of practice are seen to facilitate and define social practice.


Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield observe the social traits of organisations to identify dynamic or static trends.  The authors recognise that the most prominent social aspect is embedded on creation as organisations are established for particular purpose.  Values are instilled based on their foundation.  The rules and regulations consist of procedures for interaction.  This infrastructure gives the organisation the impetus to learn.  Individual and social groups support evolution.  As structural changes occur, the organisation evolves to adapt and modify behaviour, allowing groups to evolve and develop cognitively.  A mutual relationship of learning occurs.


What is learning?
Learning in organisational learning literature is defined as having process and outcome.  Within the domain of learning in organisation, several aspects have achieved prominence.  The lack of clarity when defining learning in organisations is in part due to processes that occur in conjunction but lead in "different directions and at different speeds".  The presumption here is that organisations learn from human action.  Information systems and their role within the organisation may identify mutual learning relationships.


The technology of an environment is intertwined with individual personal development and professional capacity to learn.  The objective of the information systems must be clear as they support human activity systems.  The authors question whether the fundamental aim of the process is to enhance performance or enhance the infrastructure and ensuing activities for the individual members.  Learning occurs directly and indirectly as groups share, learn and apply new knowledge practically.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate that where individual learning in organisations occurs directly and indirectly, organisations can only learn indirectly.  Learning is summed up as a ‘‘social process where individuals interact and learn from and among one another to develop existing and gain new skills, acquire new knowledge with the intention of leading to an improvement of working practice in their jobs.’’


Organisational learning and the learning organisation
As organisations operate through department sub-units, analysis of a fragmented structure is difficult.  The authors argue that the social element of an organisation is strongly associated with cultural aspects of learning (i.e. context).  It would appear that the organisation has an active role in shaping the learning process.  Knowledge acquired by practical working experience is channeled back into the organisation.  Reflection and modification ensue, thus supporting the well-being of the organisation and increased knowledge of its members.


Understanding the concept of learning in organisations means reflecting on the cultural environment and infrastructure that supports diverse learning styles of individual members.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield note literature draws attention to learning capacity, contextual aspects, social perspectives, narratives and communities of practice.  Organisational learning is about divergent social learning practices that occur as a result of infrastructural support.  The authors cite Cook and Yanow in defining learning as the "operational consequences for the activities of the organisation."


This perspective of social and functionalistic interpretation by Ortenblad indicates that firms transform into learning organisations.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield highlight the on-going debate on classification of terminology - it is argued whether the two terms can be used synonymously and interchangeably or if they are distinct and interrelated.  The authors emphasise the element of infrastructural adaptability and state "in providing human entities with an infrastructure to learn, a learning organisation continues to learn in itself by modifying its behaviour through the tacit knowledge embedded and subsequently interpreted in its information systems and diverse knowledge channels."


Concurrent learning of individuals and organisations
Organisations and individuals develop a reciprocal pattern of learning from each other.


Organisational learning as an individual process
Theories on knowledge creation in organisations indicate that learning transpires from the bottom up and is generated in principle by individuals.  As stated earlier, the authors argue that individual learning cannot take place without appropriate infrastructure.  Learning can be driven by individuals, teams or the organisation.  The shared objective is to facilitate change or improvement.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate that collaboration, interaction and sharing are priorities of a learning organisation.


The social and cultural perspective of organisational learning
The authors cite Wenger who states that learning in organisations should be viewed as a social phenomenon.  Learning in social terms requires communities of practice to understand work in context and setting, otherwise known as learning in situ.  Activity theory of knowledge highlights the need for interaction through collaboration.  Perceptions of organisations evolve to "social learning systems" that directly influence collective learning.  Learning complements knowledge that becomes embedded in the organisations' social practice.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield cite Yanow who argues that if organisations produce fundamental values of a collective, they can also be said to learn.  Members can shape the evolution of the learning structure as the organisation absorbs knowledge from social interactions.


Can organisations learn?
Organisational learning has produced various philosophies that focus on diverse elements and hierarchies.  Reaction to everyday social situations from internal and external environments requires adjustment and evolution.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield quote Hedberg who states that organisations develop "cognitive systems and memories".  While individuals develop personalities, habits and beliefs, organisations develop views and ideologies.  Mental models built at individual level align with organisational processing capabilities.  Research done by Argyris, and Argyris and Schon indicate that double loop learning is essential for members to question policies and objectives held by the organisation, the authors state.  


How organisations can learn through ISD projects
Information system development relies on the social perspective of organisational learning and is similar to communities of practice for the intention is to improve the organisation through computerised knowledge sharing.  Information system development is embedded in activity theory and focuses on multi-level learning.  Projects can adopt new approaches and make modifications as it progresses.  Information system development methodology uses Extreme Programming (XP) to share mental models because of its' agility and lower cost.  Each project requires a satellite group to share existing and new knowledge.  With emphasis on dialogue, Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate that learning maintains social relations.  Undeveloped working communities could adversely affect outcomes.


The authors make reference to an organisations' legacy - the system of environment and processes, and the way individuals interconnect and learn.  The authors refer to the works of Lyytinen and Robey; Levitt and March; Stata; McGill, Slocum and Lei; and Al-Shehab, Hughes and Winstanley who suggest it is important to recognise and learn from past mistakes and experiences.  It is through interpretive reflection that organisations learn during and after project initiation.  In addition to infrastructure, project success depends upon an open-learning culture to support meetings and debriefing.  Similarities from previous projects provide a platform for understanding and knowledge gathering.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield argue that this view point highlights the assumption that organisations can learn.  New projects provide new learning experiences.  Organisations construct modifications to infrastructure.  New knowledge is embedded in organisational memory.  Strategy and decision-making can take on new direction.


Conclusions
The focus of this paper outlines effective use of information system development in determining whether organisations can learn.  Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield indicate that while knowledge resides in a specific project member initially, the process of information system development allows collective learning to occur.  Interaction, dialogue and sharing utilise skills sets particular to individuals that support a dynamic and fluid social environment.  The authors indicate information system development theory promotes organisation infrastructure through facilitating social processes and see projects as a practical approach for elevating individual-level learning to organisational-level learning.  Thriving social activity develops a culture of flexibility within the organisation.


Through exploring the relevance of organisational memory and learning from past mistakes Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield make a case in understanding how organisations can learn.  For organisational learning to develop, more information on identifying how individuals learn, and consequently how organisations learn, is needed.


Future research
Identification of when organisational learning has occurred is also required.  An establishment of approaches has been called for.  Empirical testing of academic studies will define best practice models to advance the discipline.  A wide focus is needed to include learning approaches from different industry sectors.


Baxter, Connolly and Stansfield have initiated a research project to understand the criteria of recognising organisation learning.  The learning technology used is a blog.  The authors propose that blogs are complementary to the interpretive process and can be conceptualised as an information system.  Generally, blogs have not been identified as a communication tool in information system development.  However, the authors indicate that blogs provide a platform to increase levels of knowledge and stimulate group and organisational reflection.  Analysis of blogs will assess any increase in learning, knowledge or attitudinal behaviour.  By developing Organisational Learning Mechanisms (OLM), organisations develop an effective means that allow individuals to learn and enhance skill sets.  Social and cultural aspects of organisations feature predominantly at individual learning levels where an open-learning culture may lead to creative innovation processes.

Dhir, K. S. (2006). Corporate communication through nonviolent rhetoric: Environmental, agency and methodological prerequisites

Dhir, K. S. (2006).  Corporate communication through nonviolent rhetoric: Environmental, agency and methodological prerequisites.  Corporate Communications: An International Journal.  11(3) pp. 249-266.  Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from www.emeraldinsight.com/1356-3289.htm


Introduction
Corporate communications stem from the need to influence and educate the service team (e.g. stakeholder, employee, customer) to organisational values.  Success is measured through reputation and respectability.  Dhir observes the attention researchers have focused on economic effects of reputation.  Persuasive language is critical in successful influencing, but this area of study has not generated much research.


Dhir defines quality as consumer expectations being met.  Premiums are charged for such service.  Higher profit margins are realised.  The author notes that objectively, products are in general of similar quality.  Organisations that use successful rhetoric have more access to industry share.  Dhir recognises the dangers of free market enterprise when failure to meet consumer expectations results in disastrous corporate scandal.


Dhir's literature review highlights effective use of narrative in reputation management.  Critics have observed that while literature on organisational communication engages discursive and rhetorical analysis, there is not much written from the perspective of public relations.  Literature suggests the lack of interest in public relations is the failure in that field to adapt to the environment.  Organisations that are unable to effectively sustain communication internally and respond to the environment in an era of knowledge economy risk damage to their image and a cycle of decline.


Dhir indicates that some rhetoric explores aggressive forms of militaristic style communication to remain competitive.  Standardised communication enhances efficiency, but this dehumanised approach distances individual members.  Much has been done to improve communications theoretically and technologically but the potential to incur irresponsible corporate social behaviour suggests the need for alternative approaches.  Dhir proposes non-violent rhetoric and the conditions required for its' existence.


The constraint of time
While an organisations' main role is to function competitively in industry, protocols and understandings towards ethical practice cannot be breached (e.g. taxes, safety standards).  Dhir states in theory application seems straightforward.  Tasks are allotted time according to a returns based priority.  Tasks that lack quick returns appear to reflect badly on corporate leadership.  Pace of activity may reflect consumer demand or the need to remain competitive.


The rhetoric of aggression
Dhir cites Gorsevski on expediency and efficiency as typical and universal measures of effectiveness and success.  This creates a bottleneck in gathering new information and knowledge, in raising learning levels and in the application of wisdom.  Bureaucracy handles change with efficiency, while systems cope with delay.  Human fallibility is overcome through dehumanisation processes.  Dehumanisation leads to aggressive behaviour.  Dhir quotes Rubin, Pruitt and King "[i]f other is less than human, the norm does not apply".  Major barriers to change lie in commitment and communication levels in management, Dhir argues.  Compromising public trust levels renders corporate imaging as counter productive.


The non-violent rhetoric
Dhir states that any organisational rhetoric should be based on objectives that train/educate, engage and contribute to member well-being.  He uses Sharps' proposal that non-violent action seeks to deny the opponent human assistance and cooperation that would otherwise allow control over the masses.


Traditions and forms of non-violent action
Generally conceptualised as falling into two distinct categories:

• Principled non-violence;
• Pragmatic non-violence.

The former is attributed characteristics of ideology and is based on the sanctity of life.  The latter challenges conflict with non-action and is more ideally suited to the strategies of corporate communication.


Non-violent actions are divided into three categories:

• Non-violent protest and persuasion;
• Non-cooperation;
• Intervention;

Methods of non-violence involve greater communication levels through coercion than through non-cooperation.  Dhir indicates practice of non-violent principles can be achieved through sharp awareness of timing, effectiveness and efficiency.  The link between principled and pragmatic lies in shared cultural values such as the belief in non-violence, fairness and equity.


The illustrative experience of Chevron Texaco in Nigeria
Thirty years after the organisation embedded their main local export terminal in Escravos, village women from the surrounding area took the terminal and employees hostage citing exploitation, pollution and intolerable living conditions.  Within the local network, multi level sense making indicated to rival villagers long awaited government concessions on land disputes.  Their response was to take hostage four other stations to draw attention to the lack of development in the organisations' host nation.  The men threatened to burn all oil facilities if the women were harmed.  In an environment known for aggression and violence, a feminist approach was a new phenomenon.


Strategies of non-violence depend upon tactics, ideas and courage.  Dhir quotes Gadamer on comprehending socio-economic cultures.  Knowledge and understanding is only possible when prejudices are overcome in order to listen to opposing ideology.  Similarly, organisations that can reflect local socio-economic culture through adaptation transform communication processes.


Prerequisites for non-violence
Dhir argues the theory of non-violence as seen through the works of Sharp and Potter indicate that the potential flaw lies in the conditions under which it works.  The categories that render non-violence impractical:

1. Types of external circumstances that render nonviolent techniques inadvisable or unworkable or unlikely to succeed;
2. Characteristics of the agents, organisations, or individuals proposing nonviolent action that preclude success;
3. Techniques which will defeat the purpose of nonviolence.

Environmental prerequisites

• Non-violent acts ensure more beneficial states or maintain the present level of justice;
• Dhir quotes Potter "non-violence is precluded unless the resistance is undertaken as a response to an instance of violence";
• Derivation of "true and substantial".

Agency prerequisites

• Maturity
• Sophistication
• Wisdom
• Pure in motive

Methodological prerequisites

• Openess
• Feedback

Persuading the stakeholders
Corporate communications through non-violence has not been adopted by strategists despite available literature, Dhir notes.  Political conflict has successfully engaged in non-violence and Dhir argues that conflict in organisations could successfully apply non-violence in context.  Careful planning of rhetorical situations facilitate engagement of members through activities in information gathering and communication.  By educating stakeholders, emphasis is placed on cooperation.  Joint ventures pool strengths and resources to succeed.  The objective is to rehumanise communication Dhir states.


Emerging technology decentralises the functioning of social institutions that are organically designed for centralised functioning Dhir observes.  Non-violent action will transcend limits in freedom of expression.


Conclusion
Non-violence theory is an approach that offers new perspectives into corporate disciplines.  Researchers are provided with new pathways of studying public relations and strategic management to explore consistent socially responsible corporate behaviour.


Why We Need To Be On The Same Page

Gharavi, H., Love, P.E.D. & Cheng, E.W.L. (2004). Information and communication technology in the stockbroking industry: an evolutionary approach to the diffusion of innovation

Gharavi, H., Love, P.E.D. and Cheng, E.W.L. (2004).  Information and communication technology in the stockbroking industry: an evolutionary approach to the diffusion of innovation.  Industrial Management and Data Systems, 104(9), pp. 756-765.  Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-5577.htm


Introduction
It is generally admitted that the stockbroking industry was revolutionised by its' adoption of ICT.  Transformation was widespread.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng propose an ecological framework to provide understanding into the way technological innovation is embedded.


An evolutionary approach to the diffusion of innovation
Diffusion of innovation
Gharavi, Love and Cheng use Rogers who describes diffusion as a process of communication over time.  The structuring of industry results in association with developing inter-firm networks - more than exchanging commodities, these relations are developed through sustaining long term transactions where both parties have no fear of opportunism.  The authors suggest that networks operating between firms allow for improved efficiency over markets.


Diffusion of innovation and industry evolution
Gharavi, Love and Cheng cite Rogers and Haveman who see mimicry a form of practice, where practice is legitimised by industry.  Controlled change is unpredictable in its outcomes, as it links strongly to environmental circumstance.  The authors indicate that it can be assumed in particular environments, a total of x number of companies can be supported.  The survival of different forms of organisation becomes competitive.  Regulation and protocol guard against a flow of newcomers.  The authors look to Cook and Morrisey who propose thinking of industry through ecology and a Darwinian approach to selecting legitimacy (e.g. a firms' role or function and the density of the given environment).  Industry is affected by the evolution as firms undergo routine processes and are placed in a new framework.  Macro-protocols outline industry best practice and serve to unify members by observing fundamentals.


Structural dynamics as a result of technology-induced diffusion process
Variety in organisation ensures effective change can help survival.  Natural selection is based on the most adaptable and occurs during scarcity of resource.  The environment chooses organisations that best represent the niche.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng quote Hannan and Freeman who understand the adaptation process to include structures and forms that principally affect the population when organisations replace the old or less adapted.  Using population ecology indicates that adaptation is external to the organisation.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng propose further development through examining clusters.


A typical cluster structure has the stockbroker as an intermediary between the market and the organisation.  Stockbrokers evolved into gate keepers.  Individual knowledge in capacity and industry best serve market, individual and organisation.  This was driven by conscious experimentation of industry in directing evolution.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng note Singh's proposal that approaches to organisational evolution are not always straightforward.  Factors that Institutional Theory examines include socio-cultural, influence, values, power and coalitions.  As organisations are built on values, norms, traditions and other traits of individual members, blueprints on form in policy and procedure are established as best practice.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng indicate that diffusion can be linked to the structure of industry.  The authors point out that diffusion of innovation from an ecological perspective challenges considerations of efficiency.


The Australian stockbroking industry
Gharavi, Love and Cheng use Australia's evolution as an example.  After the industry was computerised, established firms were undercut by internet brokers who charged less and were more convenient.  Systems for computer based trading were designed and implemented.  Smaller firms joined bigger firms and had access to more information.  The difficulties they faced are listed.

• Start up costs to link with information sources that provide services for processing of information and transactions;
• Learning skills that are necessary to retain the advantage;
• Developing a model that guides to a successful future.

Structural dynamics of ICT diffusion and stockbroking industry
The main governing body of the Australian Stock Market is ASX.  Entrance to the stockbroking industry is by way of registry.  Tracing members is a legal requirement.  Membership equates to adherence of rules.  Once established, the members differentiate within the trace to capture a competitive advantage.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng indicate that Porter's study on competitive advantage provides the foundation for Hannan and Freeman's ecological model and a broader understanding in diffusion of ICT.  Variation stems from individual creativity in designing possible organisational structures that address all issues.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng believe this method of practice clearly indicates that older firms can adapt.


While membership means access to information, there are tacit and implied understandings and protocols that regulate.  The authors query how protocols emerge and suggest that while dominant players appear to set informal protocols, do patterns of change and diffusion include protocols set by small firms?


Conceptual ICT diffusion framework
By using an evolutionary approach Gharavi, Love and Cheng argue, the process of change and technology can be identified.  Critical analysis of alliances and networks indicates the influence extended over the organisation.  Investigation takes place at network level rather than organisation level.  The authors make note of current literature that suggests networks can either improve or aggravate environmental conditions.  In deconstructing diffusion of ICT through interorganisational networks, Gharavi, Love and Cheng develop a framework that portrays the dynamics of adaptation.  Dominant players have controlling interest, but recognise firms that adapt and survive.  The authors refer to Hannan and Freeman whose work is based on dynamic survival.  Through results of internal and external adaptation, organisational survival uses innovation to ensure suitable fit to the environment.  Organisational death is seen as the redistribution of resources.


While it is the environment that pushes for change initially, it also incurs protocol and understanding referred to in tracing.  Literature indicates that some researchers view diffusion on an organisational use basis, while others view diffusion as a mechanism to structure organisations.  Some literature simply defines the broader context of diffusion through dissection.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng choose Gurbaxani and Mendelson to propose that unified systems create standardisation while differentiated systems are component parts that work in complementary ways.  Clusters where the stockbroker works as the medium between market and industry are active ways of differentiation after uniform standardisation.  Mutualism is regarded as resulting from two conditions: supplementary similarities and complementary differences or in other words pooling resources.  The authors suggest that interorganisational relations between firms strengthen over time, and quote Granovetter on technology induced embedded relationships that consequently accumulate clusters.


The stockbroking industry response to the internet
Larger firms in industry were able to use the internet as a means to redistribute smaller firms' clients, citing lower running costs when outsourcing services.  By changing behaviour characteristic of the organisation to adapt to the environment, competitive advantage is retained.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng note that the generation of people who are skilled in ICT is replacing the generation of people who deal face to face.


Future research directions
Gharavi, Love and Cheng believe that a model on diffusion of IT and in the interest of "cross-industry isomorphism" presents future direction for testing in different industries.  Analysis of the environment will determine patterns of diffusion.


Conclusion
Using this ecological perspective indicates that firms that respond to change and adapt are chosen by the environment.  Gharavi, Love and Cheng question industry leaders' influence over evolution as the individual adapts to the environment.  As the environment changes, old traditions die to be replaced with the new.  Protocols and understandings of trace continue to apply as defined by leaders.  Applications of power represent constraint to individual and collectives reflected in uptake and diffusion of innovation.

Kyndt, E., Dochy, F. & Nijs, H. (2009). Learning conditions for non-formal and informal workplace learning

Kyndt, E., Dochy, F. and Nijs, H. (2009).  Learning conditions for non-formal and informal workplace learning.  Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(5)  pp369 - 383.  Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/
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Introduction
Owing to rapid change, the concept of educating is no longer left to formal educational institutions.  Organisations have the competitive advantage through workplace learning.  Members are trained on the job which is considerably cheaper than opting for formal training.  It is said that on the job training provides specific skills not fully appreciated in formal training.  Also noted is the lack of insight in students when applying theory to practice, indicating that formal learning cannot anticipate evolutions as the set up takes too long.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs describe informal learning as implicit yet unplanned with unpredictable results.  It is never organised or intentional from the learners' perspective Kyndt et al propose.  Practical experience creates an active learning environment.  In non-formal learning the individual learns through self-motivation or as a by-product of HRD activities.


Theoretical background: learning conditions
Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs refer to Marsick and Watkins who state that organisations facilitate learning through culture, policy and procedure.  It is the reciprocal interplay between organisation and individual that determines learning outcomes.  Emphasis is placed on conditions that make workplace learning possible.  Investigation into factors that influence learning has produced two results.  Factors that stimulate and those that obstruct.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs focus on factors that stimulate learning.


Conditions that were found to have a stimulating effect were categorised as 'context factors' - the learner - and 'learning factors' - the learning process.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs indicate through their review of literature that general conditions that positively influence learning are communication and interaction, cooperation, feedback, evaluation, participation, reflection, coaching and information.


The present study
Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs present their study as an extension of a study carried out by Clauwaert and Van Bree to find suitable indicators for non formal and informal learning that would lead to the creation of an instrument that maps non formal and informal learning.  Learning was divided into six categories:

1. work organisation;
2. internal learning networks;
3. external learning networks;
4. individual learning coaching;
5. individual work coaching;
6. information systems

Kyndt et al focus on the perceptions of the learner to identify conditions of non formal and informal learning.


Research questions
Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs prepared the following to take account of characteristics of personality, profession and organisation "For which groups of employees, based on their personal, professional characteristics and the characteristics of the organisation, are certain learning conditions for non formal and informal learning, present to a higher extent in their work context?"


Method
The sample looked at different aspects of profile.  Linguistic adaptations were made to the questionnaire developed by Clauwaert and Van Bree.  Through analyses of variance, the authors hoped to capture the significant differences displayed.


Results
The authors selected five factors of learning conditions, and employee responses indicate that feedback and knowledge acquisition is high in importance.  New learning approaches and availability of communication tools was identified as second on the list.  Being coached and coaching is third and fourth respectively.  The fifth factor concerns information acquisition.  Different age groups respond differently to learning conditions in feedback, knowledge acquisition and coaching.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs observe that all learning conditions alter incrementally with increased learning in formal education.  All learning conditions resulted in significant differences for employees with different functions.  Seniority resulted in learning conditions that differed except in relation to new learning approaches and communication tools.  Different organisations result in different learning conditions.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs observe that learning conditions in feedback and knowledge acquisition occur most in non-profit organisations.  Conditions of new learning approaches and communication tools occur most in for-profit organisations.  Size of the organisation does not reflect uni-directional tendencies.


Conclusion and discussion
Opportunities for non formal and informal learning indicate different groups can employ different strategies based on the five learning conditions the authors' outline.  The condition 'being coached' is used to highlight clear differences.  The authors suggest that employees at undergraduate level are more likely to receive and benefit from coaching.  Higher levels of education attained by individuals reduce differences within a team.  Employees in for-profit organisations have more access to the conditions 'new learning approach and communication tools' and 'being coached'.  Employees of non-profit organisations have more access to the conditions 'feedback and knowledge acquisition' and in 'coaching others'.  Employees with different functions encounter different learning conditions.  Kyndt, Dochy and Nijs indicate that the condition 'being coached' is suitable for consideration at managerial level.  Scant amount of literature on non formal and informal learning makes comparison with this research impractical.  Further research is required to verify structure and differences found between groups.


Implications for practice
Improving workplace practices requires reflection on the importance of the learning conditions 'feedback and knowledge acquisition' which the authors state undergirds learning.  Higher levels of education in employees positively improve upon and increase learning conditions.  Employees are less likely to have access to new learning approaches and rely on the organisation for information.

Johansson, C. & Heide, M. (2008). Speaking of change: three communication approaches in studies of organisational change.

Johansson, C. and Heide, M. (2008).  Speaking of change: three communication approaches in studies of organisational change.  Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 13(3)  pp. 288 - 305.  Retrieved on April 16, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/
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Introduction
The adaptation and innovation of an organisation depends upon management constantly revising tools and finding solutions through reflective and reflexive practices.  In radical restructuring that is often required during unpredictable circumstance communication is seen as a vital link to success.  Johansson and Heide note the vastness in literature on the importance of communication and it's relationship to organisational change.  Primarily focus has been on conception to implementation of planned changes.  The authors reveal a significant absence in literature on the communication perspective by which change programs are installed.  Citing Lewis and Seibold's review on implementation of planned organisational change, the authors conclude that research would benefit if the implementation of planned change was seen as a communications phenomena.


Johansson and Heide cite Weick who suggests that the main barrier to new thinking is ontological and epistemological commitments of the researchers.  Critical evaluation is required to understand research perspectives.


Planned or emergent organisational change
Popular literature in change management indicates a linear process with developmental stages.  Johansson and Heide point to studies that suggest change is developed through slow and routine processes, and focus should be on 'changing' not 'change' - an appreciation that change is evolution rather than determinate and causal.  Unanticipated change results from planned change.  Johansson and Heide have observed two approaches to change processes - a traditional approach, describe and explain planned changes; or an emergent approach, aiming to understand change processes.


Perspectives on communication
In understanding the functional role and effect communication has in an organisation, flow of communication has been studied rather than content and meaning.  Critics have argued that this oversimplification suggests communication becomes nothing more than transmission.  The interpretive perspective seeks to generate insight and understanding.  A meaning- centred view of the organisation allows social construction of ongoing processes that makes organisational life.


Three approaches: tool, process and social transformation
Johansson and Heide observed three common approaches to communication during change:

1. used as a tool;
2. used as a socially constructed process; and
3. used as social transformation.

Communication as a tool
Popular press and academic literature placed emphasis on:

• participation - members feel more included, committed and in control;
• realistic acknowledgement of information - prior warning and open dialogue;
• vision and objective - justification.

While Johansson and Heide do not suggest that implementation processes are smoother when members are openly informed of planned changes, they acknowledge it is the researchers aim to understand rational systems and increase the effectiveness of the change process.  The relationship between communication and the creation of readiness for change is a prerequisite, Johansson and Heide indicate based on research in resistance to change.  It works to reduce anxiety of a future situation.  Succesful programs of change correlate significantly with accurately managing trust and uncertainty.  Research indicates that employees involved in change feel more in control.  By measuring the effectiveness of internal communication during change, researchers are able to emphasise the validity of communication strategies.  Johansson and Heide refer to research on process and content in communication by Goodman and Truss who identify communication levels in timing, media and employee profiling link to successful planned change.  The most serious critique of research into communication as a tool is the absence of ontological and epistemological reflection.


Communication as a socially constructed process
Change is understood to be a phenomena that occurs within communication.  Interactions and communications build the framework of social reality.  Planned change can be seen as an occasion to create new social realities.  From this perspective, communication can be used to either report existing realities, or change social realities.  Change processes are a result of individual sense making processes.  Delivery of communication facilitates planned processes in sense making for the organisation as a whole.  Uncertainties and ambiguities are resolved.  However, Johansson and Heide argue that this does not resolve alternatives of choice.  Communication follows a linear sequence from concept to plausibility.  Experimentation is required for individuals to make sense of a process.  Employee profiling indicates that backgrounds, interests, positions and the like influence multiple ways of meaning making.  Individual sense making shapes organisational consensus.  Johansson and Heide cite Tsoukas and Chia who advocate the role and importance of communication as a daily process where members act, improvise and function during change processes.  Scholars are interested in how individuals approach change in sense-making with a particular focus on the narrative.  Narrative expression is important in sense making as a means of structuring experience.  Johansson and Heide citing Weick, Bruner and Fisher suggest that the narrative (actions of either the conscious or unconscious) conveys a starting point of action and direction for future action.  Research on background conversation from Ford, Ford and McNamara indicates that individual experience direct or tacit is reflected in narratives.  Resistance can be broken down to underlying assumptions and expectations, to be overcome through communication by constructing discourse.  Managerial tasks in sense making through story telling constitute the framework of interpretation.  Johansson and Heide cite Langer and Thorup who disagree with story telling.  They indicate that story telling is a management tool for discipline with monophonic properties.  A polyphonic story telling process needs to be addressed.  Johansson and Heide reflect that change is a process that takes time.


Communication as social transformation
The added dimension of power highlights the struggle for sense making and negotiated meaning.  Johansson and Heide indicate that there are multiple levels of reality as proposed by Beech and Cairns and cite Boolin's work on discursive practices of managers reproduced by members that cements legitimacy.  Attention is drawn to collaborative discourse, multi-level conversation, where knowledge construction and understanding of the organisation takes place.  Researchers also focus on the negotiation of social change and action.  Organisations are seen as political sites and discourse of emotion and identity are analysed.  Current literature in organisational discourse indicates that 'control' and 'empowerment' are key terms in developing a new language that create a positive emotional response.  Line manager response favoured 'command and control' style management that challenged power relations where different groups compete to structure social reality.  Also noted are Heracleous and Barrett who link discourse and context, and discern patterns in communications and the hidden assumptions.  Clashes in discourse at structural and communicative levels explain the lack of common ground on which to base dialogue.  Change that occurs at communicative levels may not similarly occur at stakeholder level.  Johansson and Heide cite Ashcraft whose study on occupational identity found overt consent to be a form of resistance.  Talking about a process while activating the opposite constitutes cooperation with management and resisting legitimate authority or a shared world view.


Johansson and Heide select Andersons' proposal to stabilise organisations through voicing current practice as a means of linking past, present and future.  Transformation occurs when past meaning is translated into future meaning.  However, the authors note that Alvesson and Karreman suggest discourse analysis should consider the inconsistencies of narrative text.  Reductionist approaches must distinguish process from agency.


Conclusions
The authors agree with Caldwell that most knowledge available in organisational practice lacks cumulative logic.  Discursive processes are unique to each organisation, but in considering communication as a tool, a process and a social transformation, there is an opportunity for theory building.  The challenge for future researchers is to consider the strengths and weaknesses of communication as tool, process and social transformation.  Integrative approaches will highlight certain areas at a time.  Concepts of effective change and resistance to change should be examined.  Background conversation has become an important link in communication, and investigation is warranted.  Communicative actions should consider what is hidden in the non verbal.

Jorgensen, K. M. & Keller, H. D. (2008). The Contribution of Communities of Practice to Human Resource Development: Learning as Negotiating Identity.

Jorgensen, K. M. and Keller, H. D. (2008).  The Contribution of Communities of Practice to Human Resource Development: Learning as Negotiating Identity.  Advances in Developing Human Resources,10, pp. 525.  Retrieved on April 4, 2010 from http://adh.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/4/525


Introduction
The authors establish the need for diversity in HRD literature, saying that as a heterogeneous and dynamic discipline, outcomes are characterised by differences.  They state that this should not be taken as a weakness, but as an acceptance that real life problems occur between the application of theory and practice.  Literature provides the platform to share experiences that generate new concepts to be used in other situations.


Jorgensen and Keller point out that it is HRD practitioners who construct the framework of HRD through their language.  They suggest that particular attention to working communities of practice within HRD will greatly enhance the learning community.  What is needed to understand the practice of practice is the language that identifies tacit and informal learning.  Instead of looking at HRD activities, focus should be moved to the interplay of activities and their communities or contexts.  Emphasis is placed on learning styles and histories and are based on real situations.  This provides the opportunity for reflection and meaning-making.


Identity is the point of entry because learning is linked with being, Jorgensen and Keller state.  In negotiating meaning, individuals negotiate identity.  Tension exists as it is recognised that from an individual level HRD works towards fulfilling personal potential.  From an organisational level HRD assumes the individual is a resource.  The contradiction faced in organisational learning the authors say is due to learning being about creating differences and organising about creating standards.  Identity works simultaneously with the individual and the collective where the collective is seen as the identity capital - the concept that individuals identify with.  Learning through participation allows the individual to traverse from the periphery to becoming a community member.  The community is created by mutual rules of engagement and language.  Within the community, each individual contributes towards the social in mutually beneficial ways that can only be accomplished through the practices of a culturally specific framework.


The Concept of Identity in Communities Of Practice
Situated learning is indicated to be identity building.  The use of symbols, artefacts and reification in a culturally given context becomes internalised.  The authors argue that identity is better developed in communities of practice than in situated learning.  Abstract societal perspectives are dismissed, dissolving the artificial concept of separation.  Identity formation becomes mutually consensual, integrated in the process of participation.  Language as the medium of social construction facilitates the development of a cultural framework.


Identity formation is seen as a continuous process, with its past, present and future interconnected.  Points of disruption or disturbance are seen as learning curves.  Individual trajectories afford personal perspectives on work and the future of work, and social acceptance.  The reconciliation of individual trajectories presents a challenge.  Jorgensen and Keller cite Wenger to discuss three modes of belonging - engagement, imagination and alignment.  Engagement demands active participation.  Imagination connects individuals to global concepts and their links to past and future through the banal, also known as narration.  Narration adds coherence to view activities as part of a larger frame of reference.  Alignment occurs when individuals co-ordinate themselves with the culture and tradition of a community.


Implications for HRD Research and Practice
Three ways in which communities of practice contribute to HRD:

1. communities of practice positively affect the interactions between HRD practice and modes of participation;
2. communities of practice reinforce HRD activities through which identity is negotiated so relations within the organisation are managed;
3. combined communities of practice and HRD insights allow space for reflexive or reflective contemplation.

Investigation into point 1 indicates that the informal relationship between individual and organisation is structured in Foucauldian-style power.  The authors state that there is no reason nor intention to remove power, as it is not concentrated in one place.  It is found embedded within a network of relationships.  Foucault's concept of power is structured towards an interplay of individuals distributed around the network  whose significant characteristic is difference.  We are reminded at this stage that power is energy.  How the energy is distributed depends on how it is externalised.  Jorgensen and Keller observe that there is no expression of this concept in current HRD practice or research.  The hierarchy in organisation forms a pyramid where it is directed from the top down.  Managerial discourse in literature links strategy to HRD with emphasis on company perspectives.  Power play is invisible and insignificant in conceptualising organisational goals and objectives.  Jorgensen and Keller suggest that COP is a more subtle approach where the emphasis is on the individual, their backgrounds and their learning trajectories.  Negotiated meaning making through COP as a result of integrating habitual HRD activities allows individuals to develop more meaning in daily practices.


Point 2 emphasises identity.  Trajectories are seen to comprise past, present and future.  Individual construction of trajectories is understood to have temporal value indicated by means of significance attached to activities.  To attach symbolic significance to activities is to position oneself on particular trajectories Jorgensen and Keller state, dependent upon individual forms of participation.  Imagination plays an important role in learning and developing identity - envisioning a potential future based on historical and current events re-iterates the potential impact HRD has on developing activities that change practice.


Point 3 combines HRD and communities of practice as a means to create reflexive and reflective practice.  Jorgensen and Keller believe that in isolation, Wenger's notion of identity creation is overly optimistic as it is specific to particular styles of communities of practice.  Individuals learn by having knowledge of practice and are reflexive in practice.  Reflexive practice is the systematic process of exploring and questioning direction as it relates to space and time (past, present, future).  Activities in HRD are structured towards reflexive and reflective learning depending upon the approach of the individual.  More methods for evaluation and reconstruction of past, present and future, and for coaching and communication are needed to make exploration more systematic in learning.  An historical framework is created to facilitate understanding improvements made to individuals and the organisation.


Collective learning in communities of practice indicates a community of shared meaning.  Once negotiation of meaning is resolved it becomes organisational memory perpetuated through mutual engagement being used and applied to create new meaning.  Jorgensen and Keller have identified two aspects that generate an alignment or reconciliation between different learning trajectories.  The symbolic represents the embedded processes of meaning making - examples given are the division of labour or mutual expectations - and the authors' ask if learning histories are applied to the individual.  The explorative aspect of communication and the extent to which it facilitates reflexive and reflective opportunities is representative of discourse on embedded strategies and consequent negotiation.


Conclusion
Negotiating new identities through learning has developmental potential as a point of entry in HRD.  Possibilities of connecting communities of practice to HRD contribute to intelligent working systems.  Both individualistic and abstract societal perspectives are rejected through communities of practice.  Trajectories are developed and implemented systematically as discourse through communities of practice promotes language on shared meaning.  Jorgensen and Keller state that a community is constructed through communication.