Edwards, M.G. (2009). An integrative metatheory for organisational learning and sustainability in turbulent times

Edwards, M.G. (2009).  An integrative metatheory for organisational learning and sustainability in turbulent times.  The Learning Organization, 16(3), pp. 189 - 207.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/1190160301.pdf

Introduction

Organisations that develop learning management systems, create an ongoing observation of praxis by documentation and reflexion (e.g. self-evaluation) on performance.  Groups that learn from self-management systems go through  developmental stages that are reflected in function and purpose.  Emergent responsibility and commitment to group development are enhanced with progressive knowledge acquisition that sustains credibility.


Organisations face increased responsibility as global presence leads to concern for sustainability.  Responsibility towards the environment ensures steady growth across the board.  Group dynamics changes the sphere of influence that organisations wield, resulting in identifiable dysfunction as teams grow progressively more diverse.


Integrative metatheorising
Metatheory is the formal acceptance of all theory.  Scientific theory (e.g. research) should be recognised as the ecological framework from which to structure knowledge.  Organisational development occurs through growth that is, in general, sustained in terms of economics.  Growth creates the instability that is reflective of turbulence.  Metatheory provides a view that acts as a magnifying lens to draw details of links and connections that define probable cause.


Some conceptual lenses for sustainability
The developmental lens
Commitment to sustainability requires a wider perspective.  Internal values create external standards.  A language develops to define purpose and function.  Social connections become goal-oriented representations.


As each organisation will encounter the same dysfunctions and issues, the developmental lens suggests that sustainability is interconnected with internal qualities and environmental conditions:

• Subsistence organisation - based on hard work and maximisation of profit for survival.
• Avoidant organisation - ignorance of environmental ethics results in external attack on organisational sustainability.
• Compliant organisation - sustainability is a responsibility drawn from regulation.
• Efficient organisation - sustainability is enacted from a budget-conscious perspective.
• Committed organisation - sustains economic, environmental and social activity, often setting standards higher than regulation requires.
• Sustaining organisation (local) - sustainability is developed from an  emphasis on  social integration, and economic development results from environmental concern.
• Sustaining organisation (global) - the organisations' purpose is to develop sustainable communities.

An organisation can only be sustained by drawing upon core competencies, thus future development can be regarded as maintenance of the present.  Each level of development is the sequential progress of learning.  The transformation of each group sustains a more complex form of organisation.

The internal-external lens and the field of turbulence
Developing internal-external links that connect an organisation to its environment is the key to sustainability.  When positivist attitudes are taken, only one part of the equation is considered and growth becomes unbalanced.  Dynamism in leadership has a twofold effect: transformation of an organisation from low complexity to high complexity occurs, however this growth also generates new uncertainty (e.g. turbulence) as organisations strive to remain stable.  Large organisations are said to have more complex internal networks and intricate connections to the environment.  By applying Occam's Razor, organisations have the opportunity to go to either high or low complexity states to achieve sustainable practice.


Environmental turbulence can then be seen to develop or enhance more forward thinking strategy, as practitioners learn from mistakes and process a more desirable state of conduct.


The learning lens
Metatheory indicates that there are four phases in a cycle of learning:

1. active behavioural phase - active physical engagement;
2. a reflective thinking phase - conceptual reflection;
3. an interpretive sense-making phase - cultural interpretation; and
4. social validation - evaluative phase.

Each phase can be viewed through either concrete experience as it pertains to the abstract, or by activity and its relation to interpersonal congruence.  In hierarchical terms, each cycle represents the level of learning and knowledge acquired.  The practice is often referred to as Sustainability-focused Organisational Learning (SFOL).  While it is crucial to have employees contribute to the organisational core, higher levels of individual learning will raise the potential of future development.  Communities that are unable to commit to this level of learning remain in existing conditions.

One issue that organisations face is implementing hierarchical learning that replaces single-loop learning.  By deconstructing values or institutionalised methods, communities are able to view the bare framework of function and purpose to embed new best practice policies.

Metatheorising sustainability paradoxes

The growth paradox

Indications to sustainable development require vertical growth in an organisation that correlates with increased internal development.  Internal activity during non-turbulent times causes the transformation that occurs during periods of instability.  Strategic planning may have adverse effects if the focus is on economic gain without consideration for sustaining and maintaining the community.

The learning paradox

Learning lenses consider growth, knowledge acquisition and sustainability where single loop learning is indicative of 'know what', double loop learning acquires 'know how', and triple loop learning reveals 'know why'.  Triple loop learning is the most functional in organisations that have a global span.

The sustainability paradox
While organisations face certain stress during inclement periods, care should be taken to retain articulated and persistent identity as transformation occurs. The paradox occurs as the organisation attempts the balance of sustainable growth through change and stability that in turn, leads to further development.  As organisations are complex structures, different stages of individual and team development effect multi-level learning.


Conclusion
Sustainable development is seen to be the key route to the growth of an organisation through embedded practice and learning.  It has been suggested that there is a fundamental difficulty in knowing how to embed triple loop learning within the existing single loop model.  Orthodox thinking requires metatheory to facilitate the understanding, deconstruction and rebuilding of familiar concepts.

Edwards, M. G. (2005). The integral holon: A holonomic approach to organisational change and transformation

Edwards, M. G. (2005).  The integral holon: A holonomic approach to organisational change and transformation.  Journal of Organizational Change Management, 18(3), pp. 269 - 288.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0230180305.pdf


Introduction
Theory in organisational studies has presented us with several models from which we can interpret, or analyse, the nature of transformation.  The perspective (e.g. frame of mind) of theorists is a contributory factor to the focus research will take.  Deconstructing models broadens perspective when viewed as component insights to the environment.  Currently there is no adaptive or flexible framework that takes into consideration all aspects of practising global communities.  Edwards proposes using Koestler 1967, and Wilber 1995 to build the integral holon.


Arthur Koestler's holon
The easiest way to imagine interlinked communities, or groups, of an organisation is to visualise a constellation pattern where stars (e.g. teams) are connected by intangible knowledge networks.  Depth can be measured in terms of hierarchical levels, and span covers all groups of a level.  No team is exactly the same owing to its position, location and purpose.  As each team looks across the space between communities, RPL (e.g. collective knowledge of team members, reputation) and interaction build up interpersonal congruence.  Mutual co-dependence develops.  Teams are developed to interact with others.  While focus has been on internal organisation structure, the theory of holonomics draws the focus away from organisational detail to organisational purpose.


A word of caution about holism: when using holonomics to describe psychological phenomena, it is vital to acknowledge that attitudes and views range across a scale (e.g. similar to positive - negative scales) without considering the multi-level framework of hierarchy that distorts the lens.


Holonomics is a model that understands evolution and transformation.  It applies to the analysis of individuals and collectives, and was expanded into the knowledge of "General properties of open hierarchical systems (OHS)" (pg. 2).  Therefore the holon can be regarded as the basis "for a more humane and developmental social science".  Holonomics can be added to existing structures or models to explain emergent behaviour.  Interaction becomes part of group function and existence that has a documented history.  The concept of holonomics indicates that tracking changes, "transcend-and-include", develops best practice policy in evolutionary progress of the social holon.  


Ken Wilber's AQAL model and the 20 tenets of holons
AQAL is the acronym for 'all quadrants, all levels' that frames integral theory.  The quadrants represent domains that undergo transformation and evolution.  They represent the interior-exterior and individual-collective dimensions that must be considered socially contrived to understand that subjective experience is based on the intangible that relates to objective observable, or tangible, behaviour.  Historically, subjective-objective research reveals that it is an analytical and flexible tool for exploring multi-paradigm systems.


The model includes a spectrum of consciousness that identifies human progress in stages from infancy to sophistication of intellect.  It is a categorisation of personal development that includes chronological development and frames the multi-paradigmatic, multi-level development of social activity.


Koestler's theory of holonomics is more concerned with the temporal nature of relationships, while AQAL places emphasis on the structural elements of development, where the tenets of holonomics (e.g. patterns or laws that are chronic in holon activity) converge on relational processes.  Comprehensively, both models integrate to explain perceived social realities.


Paradigms in organisational change
Edwards introduces the suitability of integral holonomics to study evolution in organisations.


Building the integral holon
1. Multi-paradigm capacity
Using an integral approach permits alternate theoretical views that add to the growing understanding of social integration.  Holonomics draws diverse dimensions into contact, which in turn generate new understanding and practice.


2. Multi-level adaptability
As social interaction is based on activity, holonomics views patterns of activity that are inter-connected and contribute to hierarchical process.


3. Qualitative (stage-based) change or transformation
Theorists identify a distinct difference between transformation and change.  Transformation occurs when organisations shift epistemological and ontological belief to adapt and survive economic demand (e.g. Nike).  Redefinition categorises the developmental stage of an organisation.  Although stages or levels are predictable, there is no direct correlation to indicate sequential progression.


Transformation includes dynamics and situational factors that complicate learning trajectories of individuals and groups.  In situations of unplanned spontaneous growth, dissociation from the environment may result.  The structure of holonomics allows epistemic understanding of social phenomena and organisational health.


4. The subjective-objective (interior-exterior) dimension
Subjective-objective studies have been linked to the theory of holonomics since Koestler.  Holarchic structure allows both dimensions to be understood in terms of paradigm studies, clinical approaches to organisational change, subjective values and perspectives, organisational perspectives, and voluntarism-determinism.


5. The agency-communion dimension
One of the issues in collective transformation addresses the changing paradigm of current need.  Concepts of hierarchy are flattened.  Reality is no longer limited to the physical as intangible connections to knowledge networks become the dominant social construct.


Perspectives on organisational change in research are divided.  It is viewed as either a function of the community's standardisation and control, directive management, and transformative leadership; or, it is seen through power relationships, communal networks and cultural identity.  Meta-paradigmatic perspectives consolidate events and processes to capture sources of affective power and relation.  Holonomics appreciates both sides of the scale, and is a strategic framework from which to view issues.


Organisational change requires directed goal-setting to unite members in a manner that nurtures the network.  Often disguised as masculine or feminine attributes, holonomics facilitates conceptualisation of hierarchy and dynamic action with empathic social behaviour.


6. Integral perspectives
Holons are case sensitive (e.g. able to distinguish between levels of individuality, groupness, and community), thus research on directed action of self-verification processes viewed through an holonomic lens reveals the focus of the researcher.


7.  Developmental dynamics
Organisations can be seen as self-contained, ecological communities.
Holonomics recognises the dichotomy of organisational dynamics where changes occur continuously, or transforms the community suddenly.  Historically, focus has been on increasing performance at individual level.  Transformative dynamics views the community as an interlinked structure that faces turbulence, subsequently upsetting culture.  Holonic terminology addresses progression, sustainability and support as evolutionary and involutionary dynamics.  Sustainable development can only occur when there is a balance between internal and external growth that is a result environmental requirement.


8. Developmental lines and the consciousness, behavioural, cultural and social quadrants
Constructs and concepts in literature (e.g. Bloom's Taxonomies, Gardner's Multiple Intelligences) decode aspects of self-development that have been used to distinguish development from transformation.


Group development processes are similar to individual process.  As each holon is representative of a stage of development, it should be viewed as part of the integrated whole.  As progress very rarely occurs in a specific sequential fashion,  various stages of development occur concurrently.  The ability to understand developmental lines is critical when theorising transformation and consequent complexities.


9. The integral cycle and organisational learning
Organisational learning is pivotal in the process of change, and facilitating the approach to group tranformative learning.  Double-loop or triple-loop learning is the integral cycle of learning, where each pass or wave represents an hierarchical level of learning.


10. Activity and communication
Cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT) relies on artefacts generated by the community as a means of gaining insight into the process of learning how goals are perceived, activated and achieved.  Activity system, or activity triad, is the foundation of CHAT.  As an individual, or group, or community work towards manifesting goals, the approach taken will lie in epistemic belief or alignment to culture (e.g. in archived transactions).  Exchanges are viewed as indicators of behaviour, alignment with community and culture, developmental stages, learning trajectories and dynamics.  Also taken into consideration are learning activities and process, interpersonal congruence, and the technology used to create the artefacts.


Holonomics provides an elaborate and functional framework to describe communities of practice and the various forms of creativity and innovation in conforming to standards, and the interpersonal congruence that marks the identity of group culture.  As a result of analysis, empathic communication may be realised.


Summary
Edwards has presented an overview and structure of holons and the holonomic framework to explore the multitude in perspectives.  Investigating the process of self-verification leads to better knowledge-gathering and a more complete understanding of the permutations of social interaction.  Edwards poses the following questions:

1. How does organisational learning relate to the qualitative shift that is definitive of transformative change?
2. How does the transformation of organisational culture relate to technological development at multiple levels across an organisation?

Rae, D. (2004). Entrpreneurial learning: a practical model from the creative industries

Rae, D. (2004).  Entrepreneurial learning: a practical model from the creative industries.  Education and Training, 46(8/9), pp. 492 - 500.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0040460811.pdf


Introduction: entrepreneurial learning in creative industries
Rae considers what developmental skills entrepreneurs have that are different from mainstream activity, and the subsequent process of learning that higher education can analyse and deconstruct from elements of identity to apply to teaching practice.


The media industry is an environment where communities require members to express creativity and innovation.  Identifying learning processes that are significant to entrepreneurship has led to a conceptual model with practical applications for universities.


Demographics in UK indicate that entrepreneurial business represents 5% of the population.  Entrepreneurial activity is taken to mean the ability to identify an opportunity where the individual can create or amass a product and turn it into a commercially viable enterprise.  It is thought that entrepreneurs live in complex and tumultuous environments (e.g. rapid change, extreme competition, transient networking connections with clients).  The chronic unstable nature of the environment develops skills in entrepreneurs that allow rapid learning techniques to emerge.


While this approach to learning is of significance to understanding communities of practice, it is an area still under-researched.  Definitions of entrepreneur would have to be agreed upon not only by theorists, but by the entrepreneurs themselves.


Research methodology
Gaining insight to entrepreneurs means exploring the differences in life networks to understand how learning is obtained.  Consequently, the rich contextual environments resulted in only three participants selected for the study.


Rae co-authored participant narratives over a two-year period that covered entire life stories, exploring stages to evoke personal and career-related memories.  The comprehensive study included comments participants made about the document.


The framework for entrepreneurial learning
Information collated from the interviews and theoretical interpretation of field research revealed three themes running concurrently: social identity, contextual learning, and negotiated enterprise.


Personal and social emergence of entrepreneurial identity
Rae states that social identity of entrepreneurs is composed of life history, professional identity, familial ties, and the stress of changing 'what is' to 'what might be'.


Opportunity recognition arising from contextual learning
Situation awareness and monitoring leads to recognising the potential of specialised encounters as a process of learning through:

• interpersonal congruence with industry;
• social engagement; and
• praxis of entrepreneurial activity.

The negotiated enterprise
Group collaborative context, process and performance is an evolving and progressive development of negotiated enterprise that includes:

• full active participation and commitment to and clarity of group culture;
• team learning, the framework of activity and performance;
• knowledge networks; and
• flexibility and adaptability to changing roles and function.

Personal and social emergence
Established entrepreneurial identity is able to express a linked sense of purpose to current and future self.  Recognition (e.g. successful performance) allows individuals to transform social identity from who they are to who they could be.


Narrative construction of identity
Rae proposes that as individuals re-invent identity, the potential for entrepreneurial identity to emerge occurs when narratives are altered.  The framework to recreate narratives is posed in the following questions:

1. How would you tell the story of your life (reflect on your past, your present and how you expect your future to be)?
2. In your story, do you feature as an enterprising person who seeks out and takes advantage of opportunities, or as an innovator who experiments with new ideas?
3. How does your identity change as your life story unfolds?

Role of the family
Strong familial ties are fundamental in shaping individual identities and subsequent behaviour.  Constraints and limitations lead to stereotypical behaviour that can be renegotiated with a change of perspective:

1. What are your roles in your family (what does your family expect of you)?
2. How do your family's expectations affect your life, career and entrepreneurial aspirations?
3. How would you wish to change your family's expectations of you?
4. What consequences for your own relationships and future family could result from your choosing an entrepreneurial way of life?

Identity as practice
Activities or hobbies that involve social interaction are good indicators of exploring natural talent.  Experience allows individuals the ability to reflect on developed skills and how they may be used in a different context.  In building a business, entrepreneurs apply who they are to the core of the company:

1. What are you good at doing?
2. How can you best apply your skills, talents and abilities?
3. How can you find the situations, opportunities and people where you can make best use of your capabilities?

Tension between current and future identity
Starting a new business involves dedication to heavy mental workload.  Acceptance of responsibility transforms the individual progressively.  Social and non-work related networks alter to suit current lifestyles:

1. What do you want to achieve from your life at work?
2. Does your existing work environment give you the space and opportunity you need to achieve this?
3. Is there a 'future reality' you want to create which is different from the present? What is this?
4. Do you believe you can make this happen?  How can you start to do this?

Contextual learning
Active participation and self-verification processes afford opportunities that individuals recognise intuitively as a result of goal-setting and situation monitoring.  Learning these skills leads to practical applications of becoming the potential of self, making the most of presented opportunity, and how to negotiate interaction with individuals that is mutually beneficial, and clarity in what cannot be.


Learning through immersion within the industry
Knowledge networks are essential for learning and social interaction.  Exploration leads to practical knowledge that aids developing intuition:

1. What are the most useful skills and expertise you have developed?
2. What intuitive, tacit abilities and skills have you developed, which you use without needing to think about them?
3. What industry and professional relationships, contacts and networks have you formed?

Opportunity recognition through cultural participation
Situation awareness and monitoring develop progressively using intellect, experience, and behaviour.  Projections of future situations based on current events depends on active imagination and the ability to take environmental activity and align it to individual goal potential:

1. What needs and problems do you recognise which could provide possible business opportunities for you?
2. How can your experience and contacts help you to create new opportunities?
3. What ideas do you have for future creative and business possibilities?
4. How could you combine existing knowledge, technology and ideas to create new possibilities?

Practical theories of entrepreneurial action
Based on epistemic and ontological philosophies of 'what works', an individual adapts to a personal style of interaction that is effective within context.  Risk is significantly reduced with practice.  Experience develops a self-assured attitude:

1. 'What works' for you, in developing new ideas and making them happen?
2. How does this work, and why?  Which people does it work with?
3. Are there limits within which it works, or beyond which it stops working?  What have you found these limits to be?
4. What are your 'practical theories' and how could you apply these in a business venture?

The negotiated enterprise
Organisations cannot be run by one person alone.  Communities are dependent upon the self-verification processes that group members commit to.  Knowledge networks are used as a means for social interaction within a professional community:

1. participation and joint enterprise;
2. negotiated meaning, structures and practices;
3. changing roles over time; and
4. engagement in networks of external relationships.

Participation and joint enterprise
As interaction actively engages group members, professional unity is reflected in the outcome of performance.  Entrepreneurs are reliant on teams to function effectively.  Multi-level learning is available as entrepreneurs share who they are (e.g. aspirations and belief in self).  The creative process of sharing vision with group members, and the competency to align members to mission, depends on group values and is of significant interest to researchers.  The shared social learning process becomes altruistic as members put project before self:

1. How effectively do you work with others in agreeing and working towards shared goals?
2. Do you know what your preferred role and strengths are in a team venture?  What are you best at?
3. How well are you able to put the team's interests ahead of your own?
4. How do you recognise and employ the abilities of others - even when you disagree with their methods?

Negotiated meaning, structures and practices
Transactive memory becomes cumulative knowledge of individual best practice policy (e.g. what works).  Aligning to community culture becomes a mediated effort of attracting members to group.  Discord is inevitable as individuals settle in.  Emotional attachment is an outcome of strong community spirit, which is the energy of the organisation:

1. What works for you and others within a shared project: how do you share goals, values and ways of working?
2. How do you stimulate and sustain the emotional life of the venture (the passion, buzz, excitement and fun)?
3. How do you turn individual learning into shared learning?
4. How do you manage conflict and disagreement to positive effect?

Changing roles over time
As an organisation grows larger, learning and interpersonal congruence develop commensurately.  Transitions change group culture as individuals adjust to a restructuring of power and relationship networks.  Rae proposes that individuals indoctrinated with characteristics or traits associated with entrepreneurial skill are self-sustaining during unstable periods and capable of maintaining clarity and responsibility towards managing daily activity.


Good management skills enable organisations to identify functional experts who are vital to the development and growth of a community.  The strength of community culture is determined by novice members' ability to adapt:

1. Can you accept that your role and others roles will change as the business grows?
2. How easily can you learn to let go and entrust important roles to others?
3. How well can you integrate new people into the business?
4. How would you deal with situations where people you have worked with since the start have not grown with the business, and their skills no longer fit?

Engagement in networks of external relationships
The benefit of interpersonal congruence between group members has effects on external relationships (e.g. interaction with client).  By engaging the client, the dynamics of the relationship alters with the customer adopting proactive communication.  Listening and having empathy for the client maintains close ties.  Community culture is perpetuated through external networks that reciprocally enhance identity awareness:

1. What are the most important external relationships for the enterprise?  With whom, and why?
2. What are your expectations of them and theirs of the business?  Are these realistic and can they be met or, if not, renegotiated?
3. How is the customer engaged in the life of the business?
4. How could the external representation and relations with the business be improved with key groups and individuals?
5. Are there gaps in the external relationships and what actions are needed to fill these?

Implications of the model
While there is mounting evidence that entrepreneurial training in higher education is required, there is little practice-based theory to use as a design platform.  Content and context structure is shifting from 'teaching the abstract of entrepreneurism' to 'heuristic learning for entrepreneurs'.  Rae proposes the model is used in practice-based communities as it is viable in training programs that support fledgling business.  Entrepreneurs in media "developed informal and intuitive theory in practice and ... valued context specific hermeneutic, reciprocal and dialogic forms of learning" (pg. 8).


Although the study has focused on the media industry, the process of learning is general to human beings.  Context and values are situated within the group or community and are the signifying elements of an organisation.

Korte, R. F. (2007). A review of social identity theory with implications for training and development

Korte, R. F. (2007).  A review of social identity theory with implications for training and development. Journal of European Industrial Training, 31(3), pp. 166 - 180.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0030310301.pdf


Introduction
Individuals are the cause of their own behaviour, therefore considered the core competency of an organisation.  As a collective, expertise and practice generate productivity for the community.  However, when organisations focus specifically on an individual, the level of dependency is mutable.  Individual importance to the organisation generally manifests as self-satisfaction, with reciprocal loyalty and commitment.


Factors that influence community, team and individual levels have been identified through cognitive and affective behaviour which result in organisational performance.  Understanding the source of behaviour is a complex process.  Individuals have a multitude of representations of self depending on their immediate setting.  Within the representations of self, lies the core of the individual that has been categorised as four distinct aspects of life: "money, social, spiritual and pure ego" (pg. 1).  Thus identity is derived from personal, contextual and social experience.


Work in organisations is normally performed in teams.  From the interaction between teams, an individual may develop several indigenous identities.  Identity then can be said to come from the core of an individual that engages with the environment with varying levels of strength.


Scholarly purpose and structure of this investigation
Identity moderates behaviour, therefore is regarded as critical strategic factor in motivating individuals to learn


Conceptualisation of social identity
Organisations profile individuals holistically in order to fit job to person.  Observations were made that individual identity and group ethic and attitude determines the representation of self that is most suited to group environment.  This revealed the differences between core identity and social identity.


Social identity theory
Research has identified the elements and the processes of cognition (e.g. the way in which we reflect on experience).  By self-categorising, individuals can verify which attributes fit the social situation and behave accordingly.  The strength of identity becomes stronger over time as comfort levels increase and trust develops within the group.


Self-categorisation has a uni-directional function.  In establishing readiness potential, the group and individual are performing best-fit practices.  Performance and function are verified according to individual criteria.  Social identity generates the need to align to group culture.


Social identity is the facade of group related behaviour.  Core identity recedes and social identity is adopted.  Under this disguise, individuals may encounter self-conflict in aligning with group standards.  As individual strive for approval, many core aspects are blocked in favour of accepting community norms leading to depersonalisation.  Although social identity is an addition rather than a replacement, the environmental pull to be accepted makes it stronger.


As individual identity reflects group status and relevance, competition between groups develops and causes a territorial struggle.


Discrimination and stereotyping among groups
As individuals accept social identity, categorisation develops according to group culture.  Individuals adhere to accepted and defined roles of their community that projects similar standards on other groups to assess performance.  In doing so, depersonalisation extends to other communities.  Self-aggrandisement and disparaging others is "pervasive, implicit and easily triggered" (pg. 4).


Dominant groups control the status quo while minority groups look for the attributes that are less obvious in dominant groups (e.g. niche markets).  Self-aggrandisement and denigration of others is consequently seen as critical for positive self-evaluation.  Favourable evaluative measures vary between groups, causing differences in tendencies and output.  Individuals who immerse themselves in group culture and social identity remove instability and insecurity through the development of trust in community activity and performance which can also be regarded as causing rigidity and intolerance.


Some groups are easier to get into than others, while some groups are naturally elitist according to function (e.g. M.I.T).  Group power and status may cause effects if individuals strive to change their low-group status to high group status, or discriminate to protect self-esteem.  Equally, groups discriminate against low-status individuals.  Discrimination in groups is only transformed when change is pushed forwards by group members.


Internal discrimination occurs when similarities receive approval and differences are stifled in order to sustain group norms.  Non-conformists are threatening to the preservation of culture.  Categorisation is the stability that unites group and members to the philosophy generated by group identity and image.


Limitations of social identity theory
There are several approaches to viewing identity, which has caused some bewilderment in understanding the terminology of discourse (e.g. differences in anthropology, sociology and psychology).  Theorists do not discount that social identity as a concept exists, but question the manner of its construction.


Documented discourse is available from both individual and group level analysis.  When the lens is applied to understanding both, the balance is seen in favour of the group thus the individual is disregarded for the benefit of the community.  Emphasis is placed on the activity rather than on content and relevance of the activity.


Identity is becoming a widespread way of analysing organisational phenomena.  Researchers, theorists, scholars and practitioners all have individual conceptions and perspectives that leads to the distortion of relevance and reason.  Korte highlights some literature that increases understanding and contributes to training and development in organisations.


Discussion and implications for training and development
Training in HRD no longer has its focus on just problem-solving.  Performance-enhancing programs have been an effective strategy in reducing back-stabbing activities.  Programs that emphasise group behaviour benefit more than those that focus on individual behaviour.


Socialisation
It has been observed that communications between novice and group members in general flow in one direction.  As the newcomer acquires knowledge, information flows from group to individual as the dominant perspective.  It has been proposed that discourse opens to accept RPL as valid components of diversity and creativity that is the novice members strength.


Therefore, socialisation is said to be the process of learning the values and responsibilities that an individual undertakes with vocational practice.  In many large communities, groups are distinguishable from the organisation.  While mentors may expect group members to generate self-verification processes with newcomers, dysfunction occurs if group culture is not aligned with either organisation or individual culture.  Tacit learning in organisations involves acquiring the knowledge and skills to perform effectively, and to form a comprehensive understanding of culture.


Strategic training and development
To effect significant uptake of community culture, the manner in which culture is generated from source must be examined.  Organisations made up of groups, may have difficulty in maintaining alignment to culture (e.g. the difference between branches of a bank and state schools).  Reinterpretation of community identity relies on assumption.


Learning knowledge or developing skills changes an individual in such a way that they can never be the same again.  Epistemological learning, the knowledge that has been learned, leads to ontological learning, how it transformed the individual.


Acquiring knowledge leads to competency-based skills that are critically evaluated within the community.  Leaders use the often restricted perspective of high-functioning groups as a role model in training programs without realising that groups are made up of the diversity of individuals and subsequent conflicting identities.  Elitism and adopted status and power stem from professional competency.  A proposed method of improvement is to understand the ontological perspective when delivering training programs.


Readiness and motivation to learn
An individuals' level of interest or focus drives motivation to learn.  It is the readiness potential of an individual that enables goal-activation.  However, if a group is not ready to accept the readiness potential of a member, very little can be achieved.


Training groups for readiness potential may seem an effective program to enhance efficiency, however consideration for multiple seniority levels indicates that each group requires a custom designed program that takes into account power and politics, the status and practices of the roles, and the tacit knowledge that is rarely acknowledged as coherent to non-members.


Suggestions are that a better strategy could be to train towards a specific objective within readiness potential (e.g. understanding how group learning improves the group).


Discussion and conclusion
Learning leads to inevitable change.  Change is often blocked by an individuals' need for stability.  When individuals understand the need to adhere to lifelong learning to maintain links that increase professional knowledge and improve competency, group identity is seen to motivate and drive ambition.


Korte's intent was to highlight the development and emerging issues of social identity.  As an analytical lens, social identity provides an added depth that contributes to richer training experiences.

Collin, K. (2009). Work-related identity in individual and social learning at work

Collin, K. (2009).  Work-related identity in individual and social learning at work.  Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(1), pp 23 - 35.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0860210102.pdf


Introduction and aims of the study
Dynamic changes in the structure of organisations in response to the economy require similar levels of adaptability in individuals.  Organisation culture presents values and other similar attributes that an individual can align themselves with.  In order to create the framework, a learning design is embedded.  The identity of an individual is clearly connected to their knowledge.  Behaviour reveals commitment levels and responsibility towards the community.  Collin investigates the significance of individual identity and the acceptance of a professional public image, and pays particular attention to studies that show that professional adult learning becomes the knowledge that shapes identity.  Individual identity is constructed of components taken from the environment and professional practice (e.g. research becomes a balance of individual and professional identity).


Social interaction was not recognised as a function of professional learning until recently.  Tacit knowledge is the intangible value of experience and discourse, or what may be seen as linking the identity an individual portrays informally with the identity that is generated professionally.  In a study conducted on engineers in Finland, Collin surveyed the different learning trajectories that four individuals made over a seven year period.


Identity construction and learning at work
Professionals take identity from their job.  As learning is significantly related to meaning making, research is more focused on the holistic measure of identity.  Motivation to align group and individual identity may cause friction when professional values are in conflict with individual values.  Individual learning experiences are recognised prior learning.  Interactive identity building processes are embedded in daily activity.  Content and context is important.  Participation is critical.  These are images embedded in the approval that individuals are subjected to from the environment.  Negative experience leads to marginalisation that affects the individuals mental health and consequent related outcomes.


Identity is linked to group culture.  Within that commitment is the detail of everyday life (e.g. job title).  Committed and dedicated involvement to community practice transforms an individual holistically (e.g. increasing interest and motivation develops as novice equestrian members see the discipline as a profession).  Members whose focus lies elsewhere are unconcerned with labelling, or with performance and achievement outcomes.  A sense of proportion between work and life balances indicate that individuals exercise self-agency in determining their value and worth as it relates to profession and socio-economic factors.


Research has shown that individual identity is strongly linked to the work community.  Shared interest is a strong motivational aspect to learning that consequently embodies identity congruence, or dedication to group values and norms.  Shared narratives represent learning.  Collins approaches this study with a view to understand the value of linking individual and social task-based learning which is an ongoing dynamic process that is flexible.  Social change is a naturally occuring process of interaction between members.  Learning interactions have the ability to change and influence role or function.  Attachment involves concern for the "we-ness" (pg. 2) of the group.


Context and participation
Employees, product designers of a company in Finland, were interviewed in 2000 and 2007.  When interviewed in 2000, the group of four participants made modified versions of the organisations' core product to fit client needs.  All four designers had many years of experience and understood the total concept and sequence of production.  The group focus was on designing suitable products that matched technology in assembly lines and customer requirement.


By 2007, the organisation had undergone a series of changes that affected the nature of tasks.  Cutbacks led to lay offs and retrenchment.  When economic stability was reached, a union of managers bought majority stakes in the company and cut ties.  In the process of reorganisation and restructuring, old systems are adapted to suit the new environs.  Several changes in ownership shortly after caused radical changes and insecurity in employees.


Methods
The first interview was conducted in 2000 to investigate workplace learning.  The second interview in 2007 investigated the construction of work-related identity.  Information gathered came in narrative form, making explicit individual knowledge.  Transcripts revealed individual reflection of role and context that transforms individual practice (e.g. appraisals).  The sequence of self-analysis progressed from understanding the process holistically to micro-management and insight into how learning and identity are symbiotic.


An holistic picture of the participants was created from the transcripts.  Individuals were profiled and categorised according to themes, experience & seniority levels.  Comparisons were made between both interviews to identify progress and evolution.


Findings and discussion
The study highlighted four trends that were significant to workplace learning and identity development labelled "the giving-up story, success story, survival story and readjustment story" (pg. 4). 


The giving-up story - Martti
E.g. an individual joins an organisation and gradually moves into different areas of interest.  For the individual, work rarely becomes routine and a diversity of skills and knowledge develop with experience.  The community network becomes apparent as Martti interacts with other members to gain information about process and function.  Discourse develops with colleagues and customers, and inter-organisational relationships develop external links.


Interaction and experience is perceived as the means of knowledge gathering.  In this instance, the individual did not feel that the experience gained during the years of service was acknowledged by the organisation and understood this to be the barrier to learning more.  In the seven years between interviews, it was noted that employee wellbeing and community spirit had dissipated during transitions.  Significant attributes to good managing such as positive or constructive feedback were lacking, as were appropriate professional attitudes (e.g. the professional distance between manager and employee).  Martti accepts that an approaching retirement, fixed income and contact with a network of peers is what engages his interest.


The success story - Marko
E.g. an individual joins an organisation with the strategy to engage in further development with an awareness of community process and function.  Determination and goal-setting created the path from novice designer at the point of the first interview to seven years later, when managerial responsibility had been assumed.  The diversity in work challenges the individual to improve practice by information gathering and critical analysis of situated activity.


The challenges faced by the individual to accept responsibility for performance leads to a search for knowledgeable networks to facilitate in problem solving.  New perspectives allow the individual to identify alternative solutions to issues faced.  In order to lead, managers are required to envision prospective strategies that enhance group progress.


Although the organisation was seen to correlate well with interest and identity, familial ties were acknowledged to be the main priority.  Marko understood that his value, seen through his skills, were the outcome of personal and professional development making him a prized component of the organisation.  Leaving an organisation was not seen as the end of network connections as a sense of community no longer resides purely within the community.  Companies are seen merely as sources of income.


The survival story - Tero
E.g. an individual with a long history of service to the organisation who had the opportunity to direct his career path, stopping only when preference in working with customer service in-house, and with other organisations, was recognised.  Strong interpersonal skills were developed and substantiated during ownership transitions.


Information and experience is gained from dynamic and knowledgeable peer and customer interaction.  Networks become a source of reference.  With experience and observation, Tero understands that fluency in work depends on a variety of conditions that are beyond an individuals sphere of influence.  Cummulative knowledge incorporates a variety of skills that are often neglected in the support group function, and is especially noticeable during turmoil where transition results in less than successful outcomes.  Commitment to learning is deactivated.


However, when commitment to community and job is high, indications are that learning will proceed with relevant community intervention (e.g. potential to transition).  High mental workload necessitated Tero taking compassionate leave to analyse and develop an interest outside of work.  Despite the many years of experience, leaving the organisation for another is not viewed as appealing.  Building new relationships is considered problematic, and the specific knowledge gained within one community may not be valued at another.  Rather, Tero preferred to be acknowledged by the organisation in the same way that he acknowledges the community and group members.


The readjustment story - Antti
E.g. Antti joined the community in product development and moved to work in specialist sales support by the second interview.  An identifiable skill is Antti's ability and nature in working with people and problem solving.  A comparison between the two jobs indicates that the latter is less cognitively taxing, but involves more consideration of scheduling.


Antti described the process of learning as information gathering from experience, developing new skills and self-verification.  However, Antti views organisational learning as inhibiting and critiques group dissemination process.  Being present when information is dispersed to all groups raises issues in logistics.  Antti's competence as a trainer had not been recognised, thus the benefits and responsibilities for in-house training of group members were under-investigated.


For Antti, work is significant in that it is personally satisfying and provides the means to support a family and hobbies that are regarded as a higher priority.  The only reason expressed for abandoning the community would be for a job that was considered more interesting.  A prevailing pessimistic ambience is a reminder that change has effected a lack of leadership qualities in managers.  Commitment to work extends as far as achieving personal satisfaction unless reciprocal commitment to developing employees builds up trust.


Summary of the findings
Perspectives of learning and development are evaluate of the commitment to career objectives that an individual holds.  Negative outcomes of transition include reduced employee motivation to develop through learning, reflected in overt behaviour.  Perception of role and identity are displayed during interaction.  While organisational change may cause instability, a sense of belonging enhances social and group learning.  As transformation within the community causes corresponding change in an individuals' personal life, goals for learning may alter.


Work identity is constructed from an individuals perception of the role and function that is performed within the community.  Participants offered commited service to the community, and were rewarded commensurately with subject matter expertise and non work-related issues (e.g. location).  Collin proposes that individual work identity is linked to an external identity that may have more significance.


Narratives indicated that a lack of desire to develop professionally emerged as a result of mismanagement.  In spite of negative judgement, a commitment to work ethics was noticeable among the participants and considered "an important definer of their work-related identity" (pg. 9).  Of the four, only Marko considered himself to be extended in a professional capacity by the community.  Identifying with work and skill competencies, maintaining strong links to networks within the community and the profession are core elements in comprehending the nature of work-related identity.  During times of instability, employees emphasise the significance of community membership.


Conclusions
Common themes in this study revolved around the context for learning, commitment to the community, and emerging work-related identity.  Understanding the need for meaningful working practice and the motivation for self-development were also discussed suggesting that developing professional identity and a commitment to the group is tied to learning.  The context in which a group functions, the role an individual plays, clarity of objectives and experience aid in the construction of professional identity and consequent knowledge gathering processes.  Communities that develop committed programs to developing the professional skills of member benefit from progressive learning.


Changes that occur within the community may similarly effect changes on the surrounding environment and are viewed as processes instead of results.  Professional identity is taken from the significance of community membership, the ambience in which interaction is conducted, and the dedication felt towards the community.  Community instability affects individual attachment and performance.  Communities that consider employees holistically enhance an individuals capacity to achieve a better work-life balance.  The community benefits retrospectively when individuals are acknowledged as valued members.  Middle managers are entrusted to observe and make recomendations that lead to the development of ability and proficiency.


Collins suggests further research is conducted on workplace learning and work-related identity as individual narratives are not comprehensive representations, and indicates that several issues are still unknown.  Investigating work-related identity and social learning opens up potential research avenues.  Further discourse provides a larger framework for understanding the processes of work and learning theoretically.

Blenkinsopp, J. and Stalker, B. (2004). Identity work in the transition from manager to management academic

Blenkinsopp, J. and Stalker, B. (2004).  Identity work in the transition from manager to management academic.  Management Decision, 42(3/4), pp 418 - 429.  Retrieved on June 5, 2010 from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/Insight/viewPDF.jsp?contentType=Article&Filename=html/Output/Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Pdf/0010420305.pdf


Universities welcome practitioners who transition to academia and bring with them practical solutions that have worked in real-life situations.  For this reason, practitioners are often referred to as management academics, their strength lies in teaching working knowledge of management practice (e.g. role modeling in action).


Self-identity and self-presentation
Analysis and reflection work define component attributes of individual identity.  Narrative exploration locates choice and experience shapes discourse (e.g. bouncing ideas off others to make informed decisions).  Self-perception and self-evaluation are projected through communication.  Self-identity is determined externally by credibility, the ability to integrate self and image.  Historical allegiance may be a constraining factor.


Identity construction during transition
Lifestyle is seen as a motivating factor in developing identity that goes beyond marketable conceptualisations.  Quality of life is an individual standard that emerges based on values and limitations provided by the environment.  As such, it can be seen as evolutionary progression rather than a static attribute.


The impact of prevailing discourses
Defining discourse
Discourse relies on communication.  Informal or abstract communication is a basis for discussing concepts of self-identity.  Narratives are an example of identity building processes that involve a multi-level approach to participation in collaborative groups.  Feedback and assessment as an outcome of dialogue permits others to "edit, applaud and refuse various elements of the constantly produced narrative" (pg. 4).


Discourses of change in higher education
Individuals who transition from one field of practice to another rely on contributions to reconstruct a new identity.  Prior allegiance may be strongly tied in to identity, thus acceptance of new knowledge creates the capacity to develop new ties and alliances.  Performance may be challenged as individuals struggle to fit in to a new framework.


Implications for academic identity
As practitioners transition to academia, current knowledge and identity are subsumed by ongoing working knowledge that develops from acceptance of their new role.  Individual challenges lie in finding solutions generated from knowledge created within the community.  Practitioners transferring to different disciplines may encounter issues in relating practice to knowledge.


Self-identity in the context of organisational identity
Working knowledge helps the individual transition to the new setting but credentials may not be appreciated or relevant.  New identities are constructed within the framework and limitations of function.  Group culture and identity become linked as individuals address mission statements to adapt and transform with the organisation.  Accepting organisational policies indicates a responsibility towards the community that results in an emotional attachment to performance outcomes.  Individuals become a representative state of the organisation.


Identity construction in the transition from manager to management academic
Who am I?
Labelling (e.g. titles) is descriptive of role function, but not necessarily of identity.  Many people refuse to accept labels on the grounds that it is not an holistic representation of self.  Identity is forged in activity, and different activities provoke elements of identity according to context (e.g. the differences in interaction when talking to a customer services representative and a friend).


Anticipatory identity work
Projection of future identity aids in forming prospective values, attitudes and philosophies that depends on behavioural commitment.  Learning trajectories evolve from day-dreaming about future events based on the potential of self.


Behavioural commitment and sense making in identity construction
In order to achieve potential, individual learning trajectories are the design of planned and sequential events.  Implementation of activities that facilitate achieving goals reveal individual passion and interest.


Identity work - what is done, what is said
The search for credibility
Practice and experience are transferable skills that are significant in reconstructing identity.  Reflection offers insights for new entry points to discuss living knowledge in honest and open communication.


To research or not to research
Practitioners transitioning to academia face the choice of teaching or researching as a profession.  Oftentimes, the choice of accepting a research role requires learning new skills and building up a knowledge base.  Credibility becomes an objective.


From manager to worker
Identity may be lost in transitions where seniority levels are diminished (e.g. the individual is a newcomer).  Working as a junior member requires a change of perception in individual status.  Reduction in participation levels with senior members and management have been observed.  Links made to new connections encourage the development of self (e.g. the student body).


The emergent career academic
Practitioners maintain links to prior knowledge by joining communities.  An holistic understanding of praxis develops with ongoing acquisition and analysis of learning.  Consultancy is a popular practice and supplements the reduction of income.


To formulate a concept, individuals use examples taken from the environment.  Theoretical knowledge provides the framework for debate, while critical analysis of content and context create a deconstruction of perspectives that shapes the design of solutions.


"To thine own self be true"?
Career progression becomes a discovery of interests.  A change of profession, where experience has been acknowledged as valuable, gives the individual a competitive edge.  Knowledge creation develops new skill sets that maintain the desire to fulfil potential.  Alternatively, individuals continue the practice of management within the new setting (e.g. supporting group members).


"This isn't what I signed up for"
Despite the fact that academia shares many lifestyle qualities with practitioners, hours are longer and micro-managed.  Blenkinsopp and Stalker ask why practitioners make the transition based on this information, and suggest commitment and professional identity as reasons for staying.


Exit as identity work
Cumulative knowledge increases  an awareness of individual desires.  What might have been considered a career transition (e.g. practitioner to academic) may turn into a sequence of progressive changes  (e.g. switching departments).


Conclusion
Blenkinsopp and Stalker suggests that practitioners draw on their wealth of experience and new knowledge to manage participation in communities of discourse.  Universities that limit the application of practical experience of new members are counter-productive as innovation stems from creativity.