Jahoda, G. (2002). The ghosts in the meme machine

Jahoda, G. (2002). The ghosts in the meme machine. History of the Human Sciences, 15(22), pp. 55-68. Retrieved on 16th May, 2010 from http://hhs.sagepub.com



Introduction
Jahoda introduces us to Susan Blackmore who wrote The Meme Machine in 1999. Jahoda links Decartes dualism "not only animals but also humans are mere machines" (pg. 2) to Blackmore's work "humans are mere creatures of entities known as 'memes'" (pg. 2). Jahoda indicates both pieces of work generated similar impact.

History is important when reflecting on evolution. Darwinism was a significant influence on the work produced during the late 19th and early 20th century, but receded in importance after the first world war. Environmentalism became the metaphor, and behaviourism the focus. Behaviourists were superceded by cognitivism. Cognitivism split into two strands (bifurcated) with one strand looking into meaning, and the second taking account of neurophysiology, renewing interest in evolution and Darwin. Subsequent discoveries (genes) have lifted this issue above understanding of the 19th century. Social evolution is known as cultural evolution. The key question according to Jahoda concerns the link between cultural and genetic evolution. To understand culture given the varying global representations available, smaller units of information called memes are used.

Jahoda describes the current ethos as tending towards a "rigidly mechanical conception of genetic evolution" (pg. 3). Within the debate of genetic and cultural evolution is a dichotomy, Jahoda states. More research is needed to explore mechanical and organic selection. Different interpretations of Darwinism leave room for influence in genetic evolution. Since Darwin, Jahoda notes that language has become metaphorical.

Dawkin's work on the Selfish Gene takes the view that genes compete with other genes to transmit information. Genes are known as replicators and survival constitutes the basis of evolution. Human culture can be seen as a "soup" (pg. 4) where one unit of cultural transmission can be viewed as one unit of imitation. Dawkins suggests memes propagate by jumping from brain to brain, also known as imitation. Different and conflicting memes struggle to dominate and influence our intellect which indicates that without cultural pressure memes can be ignored (e.g. think about the way catch phrases are transmitted - when read and repeated by another, a meme is formed; but if it is read and not repeated they remain paradoxically phenotypes).

Some classical writings on imitation and social life
After Aristotle, Jahoda identifies Erasmus Darwin (grandfather to Charles), "a free thinking physician and poet" (pg. 5). Research from 1963 indicates that Darwin, E. proposed his own theory of evolution which Jahoda believes to be quite modern. E. Darwin believed that imitation is key to supporting human social life because imitation gives rise to the origin of all social bonds - sympathy. From childhood onwards, man is essentially imitative. Education and the history of civilisation rely on this. Other literature (1877-2000) covers imitation extensively ranging from the animal world (e.g. ant colonies) to world history. Individualistic views generated some ill-tempered debates. Jahoda quotes Baldwin, 1897: "Everything that is learnt is copied, reproduced, assimilated, from one's fellows" (pg. 8). Imitation and innovation can't be separated as they are integral parts of the same cycle. Baldwin proposed a new factor in evolution - that evolutionary direction is integral to intellectual capacity and conscious awareness. Learned behaviours can become instinctive.

Some striking echoes from the past
Blackmore indicates that imitation is not conscious or deliberate. Songs are memes. Lyrics influence individuals. Music has been banned through the ages. Mathematical models have been constructed to demonstrate how ideas from external environments develop much like language. Ideas compete with each other for ascendancy to avoid diminished consciousness. Without regular activation, thoughts disappear.

When is a metaphor more than a metaphor?
Jahoda explores the concept of competition between memes and questions if aggression is to be taken literally or metaphorically. When do memes stop being thought of as active agents and become active agents? Consistent view is that humans are active agents who invent, innovate and imitate but not necessarily in a conscious and deliberate manner. Metaphors are correct but not accurate in nature, Jahoda argues. There is nothing wrong with metaphors per se if they can be translated back "into literal discourse" (pg. 12).

Jahoda quotes Blackmore "the real driving force behind [progress] is the interest of the memes" (pg. 12) . Jahoda reveals Blackmore's indication that intention has been transferred to the memes. As indicated previously, memes achieve nominal success through cultural pressure to conform and can go ignored.

Concluding comments
Jahoda questions how Blackmore's work has reasonably added to fundamental advances in genetics. Comparisons between other theories reveal it is generally accepted that there is a vast pool of memes in society. Some are selected for imitation. Selection does not imply conscious or deliberate action. However, while many commentators have based their work on some element of social and biological processes, Jahoda notes that differences stem from Blackmore's view favouring memes as active and humans as passive. Baldwin's comments that link imitation and suggestion implying that humans have active roles were not addressed by Blackmore. Invention and creation of novelty generates imitation, but does it mean that older theories that treat humans as active agents are better grounded?