Aubusson, P., Schuck, S. and Burden, K. (2009). Mobile learning for teacher professional learning: benefits, obstacles and issues

Aubusson, P., Schuck, S. and Burden, K. (2009).  Mobile learning for teacher professional learning: benefits, obstacles and issues. ALT-J, 17(3), pp. 233 — 247. Retrieved on May 31, 2010 from http://pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/451711_751304989_915792534.pdf


Introduction
Mobile learning is on the rise for reasons of practicality and efficiency. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that learning opportunities abound for both student and instructor. New technologies facilitate collective learning and provide current access to viewpoints not expressed by the instructor. The observed transformational effects are an area under-researched in favour of research on ICT integration in school curricula and use of technology on students. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that without appropriate research the task of critical reflection on individual teaching practices, the chances of transformation are limited.

It is possible that the reason for slow uptake of digital learning in formal education could be connected to the sense of isolation in the work place (e.g. classrooms). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that opportunities to learn occur in diverse environments and times. Mobile learning opportunities are presented during travelling times between locations (e.g. classroom to playground) and are ripe for professional learning. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden refer to Schon’s reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action and state that mobile learning offers both. They argue for collaboration of learning between student and instructor. Artefacts collected during use of mobile technology (e.g. information shared in text messaging may contribute to new conceptions and behaviour) are not fully recognised as significant to the learning process.

Collaborative and mobile teacher learning
Lifelong learning is required in a profession such as teaching. Collaborative learning is effective in enhancing professional efficacy as information is shared through anecdotes. Exchanges can be limited (e.g. contained within departments or colleagues; teachers wishing to share only with professionals outside the school environment). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that collaborative learning is acquired in short bursts as teachers move physically from activity to activity. Mobile learning allows access to expertise in diverse areas and a connection to a professional support network. A sample study by Wishart of teachers and trainees revealed that the most used applications were the calendar, the camera, a search engine and voice notes. Least used were the blog facilities and communication with others.

Dialogue enhances reflection and leads to group reflection. Emphasis should be placed on systematic evaluation through reflection rather than evaluation focused on specific issues. Furthermore, when addressing approaches to learning and teacher-student relationships, an insight into the role and learning of teachers should be considered as it relates to mobile learning.

Methodology
Participants
Eight participants with stakeholder interest and influence in professional learning and ICT in schools took part as a source of data.

Data collection
Respondents were asked about:

• their experiences with mobile devices and their use in professional learning;
• policies that influence or hinder mobile professional learning; and
• ethical issues.

Data analysis
Aubusson, Schuck and Burden kept the focus on actual and potential use of mobile technology in professional learning. Views, perceptions and comprehension levels were analysed. Abstraction established a structural framework to work from. Key elements are mapped to trace possible connections and links that influence. Three themes that emerged:

1. mobile devices used by teachers for professional learning that include concepts such as individual learning, reflection, collaboration and supporting staff development;
2. integrated use of mobile devices by teacher and student include opportunities for feedback and collaboration (in recognition of student achievements); and
3. ethics for use of mobile devices during capture and transmission (involving consent).

Teachers' personal use of mobile devices in professional learning
Reasons include:

• JIT (Just In Time) tool;
• portability; and
• student-teacher interaction.

Mobile devices were seen to enhance integration of technology, but it was acknowledged that the teaching profession has historically been seen to adapt and transform slowly. As there are still diverse levels of ICT skill in teachers, the gap between linking mobile devices and professional learning is ongoing (e.g. teachers' who have never setup or accessed an email account). Scaffolding is required to assist in understanding mobile devices as a tool for professional development. By providing models of use in situational activities (e.g. training in the use of handheld devices), others would learn to conduct individual learning. Personal involvement with a tool allows understanding of its potential. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden indicate that there is a general conception that teachers lack a culture of reflective process (e.g. teachers will save data from a project to reflect an event rather than as a means for professional learning). They state that this viewpoint may be purely anecdotal and have no correlating significance.

Potential use for mobile devices is high, but issues relate to slow adoption of technology and a culture that is yet to embrace reflection in collaborative professional learning (pg. 10). Reports from Australian and British governments highlight the recent developments in technologies to enable the effective practice of sharing and dissemination. Staff development can be embedded in a variety of ways. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden indicate research done in remote regions of Australia reveal few computers in these areas. Mobile technology has become the predominant means of connection. The way to make mobile learning mainstream is by modelling mobile devices as a professional development tool, encouraged by developing student mobile activities.

Teachers and students using mobile devices collaboratively
Incidences of teachers allowing students to integrate mobile devices during lessons are becoming more frequent (e.g. recording experiments; theatre). Despite reports citing the benefits of mobile technology in schools, it has not developed wide acceptance. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state that incidences of students enjoying the process and feeling a sense of achievement is high.

Ethics of use in the classroom
Issues include:

• public access to information intended for a specific audience (e.g. the view is fairly relaxed concerning distribution as it cannot be accurately controlled, but it is generally agreed that dissemination to a wider audience would require permission);
• sharing of materials professionally (e.g. historically sharing of artefacts between teacher and student has always taken place - photographs, etc.; there was no danger of digital dissemination);
• archiving and record keeping (e.g. parental and student permission sought at the start of the year to encourage reflection on behaviour; sharing with participants may be acceptable; sharing with a wider audience may give rise to harmful consequences); and
• parent and/or student consent (e.g. without specific consent, teachers are unable to make full use of spontaneous occurrences even when mobile devices are available).

Development of policies and school bureaucracies are a result of working reactively towards reducing unethical use. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden identify four levels of consent:

1. permission is not asked, recording is surreptitious (not considered appropriate);
2. permission from student and parent is given to use mobile device technology for learning (ethical in a limited environment);
3. specific permission is requested (ethical in a limited environment); and
4. permission from student and parent is given to use mobile device technology for designated events.

Discussion
While the respondents were able to call on considerable experience in their fields, they cannot be seen to be representative of every teacher. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that trustworthiness will be established by the reader. Research into the following areas could develop further understanding on the slow uptake of technology:

• the ethics of using mobile devices for professional learning;
• the degree to which most teachers are digitally competent and confident; and
• the degree to which the teaching is a reflective profession.

The portability and multi-function aspects of mobile devices makes their use more appealing than traditional single-purpose devices (e.g. mobile phone vs. camera). Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest that technology teaches both student and teacher (pg. 12). Artefacts generated by mobile technologies can be used as the start point for generating an extended discourse of genuine partnership. Different viewpoints and perspectives can be gained by deconstructing the learning/teaching process (e.g. reviewing a recording after the event). The process is both transformative and disruptive. Experience is gained from practice, and is a significant part of the learning sequence.

Current practice in mobile technology is viewed as illicit and subversive (e.g. furtive recording may be used to humiliate instead of encourage) Aubusson, Schuck and Burden state. Popular press in the UK "is littered with examples and criticisms" (pg. 13). Australia has fared better. Generic consent is obtained at the start of each school year. Teachers are unaware of protocols that apply to digital image other than a general prohibition of public access.

Conclusion
Aubusson, Schuck and Burden have highlighted the potential of mobile technology to add new dimensions to personal development. Knowledge production and knowledge sharing is supported and enhanced by mobile technology. Analysis and feedback becomes more comprehensive. Learning opportunities for both teacher and student apply. With a shift in perspective, it is possible to view mobile technology as liberating and empowering. Students need to be prepared to use their mobile devices as learning tools. Aubusson, Schuck and Burden suggest a cautious approach to embracing mobile professional learning.

Ghazali , K. (2009). Multiculturalism of Identity in Education.

Type: Research Paper

Introduction
Critical analysis of how children are learning is having an effect on research, and one path that is gaining momentum is the integration of technology and education. The text based approach to learning is one option in which a majority of children are open to, but it could be seen to hinder those who are not receptive to that mode of instruction. Researchers have found alternative methods of delivering information to students via a gaming portal that is having some success in creating interest and motivation to learn. The concept here is that the gaming world has no barriers to ethnicity and gender, and creates an asynchronous safe environment for the children to explore options that relate to the real world, thus making education (in theory) fun and releases the need for rote memorisation. Specific focus on the technology of SixthSense (TedTalks, 2009) and its significance to education is introduced.

The cultural bias
Current research from the USA is concerned with the segregation of children from low socio-economic areas and ethnic minorities. It is acknowledged that teachers who have a low proficiency rating are in general sent to schools that have the highest percentages of minority children (Sue, 1999). In the harshest of realities, the state education boards’ unspoken sentiment can be seen as segregating students based on their financial background and ethnicity which gives rise to countless civil action suits. Education committees send more funding only when threatened with desegregation (Alexander, 2002).

As a community, people reflect the sentiments of their habitat and this is due in part to a disparity of lifestyles and cultural heritage. The values of personal tradition may be in direct conflict to the standards upheld by a Western mode of national education, the objective of which is to create an economic workforce to feed a democratic nation. When Leon considers the progression of diaspora and the modern day migrant, she also reflected on the way families retain a sense of identity in relocation - the re-mapping of the home space because the migrating people cannot return to the country of origin and must learn to integrate and adopt a new identity. “Their focus on text making and rhetoric serves to highlight the constructed, artificial nature of cultural accounts”. In accepting a culture that is foreign to them, they lose fragments of their original self. “For the diasporic traveller whose experience of home is always ambiguous, a possible way of retrieving the past and evoking a sense of belonging is, as Chambers suggests, through “seeking to be at home here, in the only time and context we have” (Chambers, 1990:104). “Here” refers to the intersections between past and present, colonial and postcolonial, local and global that constitute today’s temporal and spatial configurations” (Leon, 2003).

Brooks’ (2003) research into multi-culturalism in Australia serves to identify common issues of integrating Asian values within a Western culture. She identifies the colonialist era as an example of layering a distinct type of education on top of existing parables without first examining the possible effects that such a system may have on a country’s beliefs and way of life. With respect to Australia, she states

“[in] the context of multicultural Australia, Ang maintains that being Asian means occupying a position some way between inclusion and exclusion,

in the ambivalent space of what Bhabha describes as

“almost the same [as us] but not quite” (Bhabha, 1994:86).

As Ang observes,

“if the ambivalence, in between sameness and otherness,

then it is a space in which minority subjects are both

discursively confined and symbolically embraced” (Ang, 1996:46).

Further along this outlook, Hill delves into the concept of citizenry whose concern is mainly based on the theory of the New Hierarchical Order (Hill, 2003). His collation of information has led him to outline the way in which the social elite are directing the masses towards leading their lifestyle through education. Indications of outcomes to this objective are touched upon, leading to a belief in the exploration of alternative modes of education. Hill points out that it is a form of exclusion that individuals are judged on the basis of their economic worth and consigned to communities of social worth, and suggests that future research draw data from the technologically feasibility of progression that draws upon the talents and abilities of youth who are currently seen as behaviourally problematic or learning deficient. He describes the job market as one ultimately dedicated to the knowledge worker, who create through technology a standard of intellect not available to those of limited intelligence.

The possibilities of consequential action will be determined by ongoing research into finding a balance described as zhongyang or middle ground described in Cheung’s (2003) work when considering and reflecting on reason and rationale as discussed by Habermas when comparing Eastern and Western schools of thought. He considers that it is possible to create and amicably sustain a balance between extremes, not located through scientific or mechanical distribution to an exact equidistance between poles. By observation of not only expected variable outcomes, we can start to think about unexpected variables that are naturally occurring as a result of implementing new processes. Cheung states that

“[in] deliberating upon the most appropriate course of action possible, the individual with a zhongyang mode of orientation pays special attention to interpersonal dynamics, weighs the possible consequences of different actions, and strives to maintain harmony in the social world. With this holistic perspective in place, the individual is ready to exercise self-discipline even in seeking personal satisfaction (Yang and Chiu, 1997)”.

Behaviour and the pedagogy of education
Research in the domain of psychology reveals aspects of individual behaviour patterns that lead to insights as to how people respond to learning environments. It has been established that each person attains maturity in their own time, but recent research has indicated that there are different areas of maturity that we achieve at different levels in response to activity (Hall & Moss, 1998). A look at Bloom’s Taxonomy allows for reflection upon cognitive behaviour and the steps that can be taken to enhance knowledge until the individual can create.

First, it must be understood that we each arrive at individual conclusions based upon our identity through environment and inherited perceptions. Maslow indicates the hierarchy that is required to self-actualise, but self actualisation does not automatically occur through cognition alone. Ammann’s critical insight into the psyche indicates that it is easier to unlock potential from a very young age than from a position of adult maturity where ‘armouring’ has already taken place.  She states

“[l]et us return to the insight that the urge to self-realisation is the natural law of every being. Many persons, especially many parents, cannot accept this. They cannot admit that from the seed of a sunflower must come a sunflower and not a rose even if they stand in front of the plant every day and beg it to become a rose. The child gains a deep confidence in his own life process only if he is allowed to become a ‘sunflower’ – if there should be one inside him. If the sunflower-child is forced to become a rose, it is the same as if parents or the larger environment cover the child with alien petals or an alien skin under which the original personality atrophies or, worse still, suffocates. This foreign skin consists of projections which the environment has placed on the child, or more aptly put, it consists of projections which bury the real child. There may be some adaptation by the child to this alien skin or even active participation in the production of it; nonetheless, the real individual essence is not perceived under the skin
and stands little chance of development”

(Ammann, 1991:31).

In many ways the move from text only literature to multimodal texts and new literacies is a logical progression from the traditional style of education to one that is more adaptable from a 21st century perspective. In keeping with the technological flow, children are much more adept at acquiring skills of this era because it is all they know and are more open and accepting than adults who were brought into a more austere form of education.

Integrating emerging technology
Bloom’s domain of manual and physical skill, the Psychomotor, was not fully developed when he first presented his idea, yet we inherently know that physical activity is good for us as humans and especially so for children. As the world of virtual reality and gaming is becoming more of an accepted activity, its incorporation in schools as a source of learning has taken place (Squire, 2003). This is where we would like to bring in SixthSense. A technology still in its infancy, the potential for which will encourage students who don’t or can’t learn in the traditional sense, offers new opportunities for knowledge acquisition by marrying the physical realm with the cyber world.

By educating the young with this technology, we are allowing them to create situations that have relevance to their own sense of meaning making. Examples of this might be in the field of science where dissection in biology is becoming less appealing. By developing technology that allows us to dissect a virtual creature, learning can still take place and children who were once turned off by the physical reality of what is expected of them may have opportunities to create a loophole in their personal code of ethics.

Discourse to conduct more meaningful structure to this work is still required, and to that end we propose to collate more information on adaptive and flexible processes of delivering information that enhances sense making and consequent performance output through internalised motivation. By understanding how a cognitive presence, social presence and teaching presence affects learning in asynchronous communication, a clearer picture of the direction we need to take will emerge.

Conclusion 
While the concept we have of using SixthSense is still forming, intuitively it feels like a step in the right direction. There is a solution to end the practice of segregation in schools - by acknowledging and accepting individual differences, not only in learning styles and heritage, we create a space where there is no cultural ‘norm’ to be achieved. However, it is normally accepted that there is resistance to the new, not only from the establishment, but from parents alike and it will take time to do research on the programs that can be used to effectively enhance subjects that are taught. Knowing this, it is a given that any contribution that can be made now will be subject to severe scrutiny before any research will be considered valid.

Furthermore the route to implementation must be considered or face making negligible impact on society. Without due thought to process, this idea may turn into a flash in the pan rather than serve as an alternative model for learning.

References:

Alexander, N. A. (2002). Race, Poverty and the Student Curriculum: Implications for Standards Policy. American Educational Research Journal, 39(3) pp. 675-693. Retrieved December 3, 2009 from http:// aer.sagepub.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/cgi/reprint/39/3/675

Ammann, R. (1991). Healing and Transformation in Sandplay. Illinois: USA

Brooks, A. (2003). The Politics of Location in Southeast Asia: Intersecting Tensions around Gender, Ethnicity, Class and Religion. Asian Journal of Social Science, 31(1), pp. 86-106. Retrieved January 28, 2010 from http://ejournals.ebsco.com/direct.asp?ArticleID=4189858DB8BAEE39B61F

Cheung, T. S., Chan, H. M., Chan, K. M. & King, A. Y (2003). On Zhongyang Rationality: The Confucian Doctrine of the Mean as a Missing Link between Instrumental Rationality and Communicative Rationality. Asian Journal of Social Science, 31(3) pp. 107-127. Retrieved on January 28, 2010 from http://ejournals.ebsco.com/direct.asp?ArticleID=4D07982CF3DB46F375DA

Hall, D. T. & Moss, J. E. (1998). The new protean career contract: helping organisations and employees adapt. Organisational Dynamics, 26 pp. 22-37. Retrieved August 16, 2009 from http://ezproxy.usq.edu.au/login?url=http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,url,uid&db=buh&an=237911

Hill, M. (2003). Citizenship and Social Closure: Predetermined and Postmodern Trajectories. Asian Journal of Social Science, 31(1) pp.72-85. Retrieved on January 28, 2010 from http://ejournals.ebsco.com/direct.asp?ArticleID=41648F725B128106D387

Leon, C. E. (2003). Textual Travel: Creating the homespace and the Search for Belonging in Michael Ondaatje’s Running in the Family. Asian Journal of Social Science, 31(1) pp.5-18. Retrieved on January 28, 2010 from http://ejournals.ebsco.com/direct.asp?ArticleID=4A7895F85B893B85F5E0

Sue Books (1999, December). School Funding: Justice vs Equity. Equity for Excellence in Education, 32(3), pp. 53-58. Retrieved on November 29, 2009 from http:// pdfserve.informaworld.com.ezproxy.usq.edu.au/73638_751304989_746917386.pdf

Squire, K. and Jenkins, H. (2003). Harnessing the power of games in education. Insight, vol. 3. Retrieved on January 27, 2010 from http://www.edvantia.org/products/pdf/insight_3-1_vision.pdf

Tedtalks (2009). Patti Maes and Pranav Mistry demo SixthSense [video]. Retrieved on November 30, 2009 from http://www.ted.com/talks/pattie_maes_demos_the_sixth_sense.html

Jahoda, G. (2002). The ghosts in the meme machine

Jahoda, G. (2002). The ghosts in the meme machine. History of the Human Sciences, 15(22), pp. 55-68. Retrieved on 16th May, 2010 from http://hhs.sagepub.com



Introduction
Jahoda introduces us to Susan Blackmore who wrote The Meme Machine in 1999. Jahoda links Decartes dualism "not only animals but also humans are mere machines" (pg. 2) to Blackmore's work "humans are mere creatures of entities known as 'memes'" (pg. 2). Jahoda indicates both pieces of work generated similar impact.

History is important when reflecting on evolution. Darwinism was a significant influence on the work produced during the late 19th and early 20th century, but receded in importance after the first world war. Environmentalism became the metaphor, and behaviourism the focus. Behaviourists were superceded by cognitivism. Cognitivism split into two strands (bifurcated) with one strand looking into meaning, and the second taking account of neurophysiology, renewing interest in evolution and Darwin. Subsequent discoveries (genes) have lifted this issue above understanding of the 19th century. Social evolution is known as cultural evolution. The key question according to Jahoda concerns the link between cultural and genetic evolution. To understand culture given the varying global representations available, smaller units of information called memes are used.

Jahoda describes the current ethos as tending towards a "rigidly mechanical conception of genetic evolution" (pg. 3). Within the debate of genetic and cultural evolution is a dichotomy, Jahoda states. More research is needed to explore mechanical and organic selection. Different interpretations of Darwinism leave room for influence in genetic evolution. Since Darwin, Jahoda notes that language has become metaphorical.

Dawkin's work on the Selfish Gene takes the view that genes compete with other genes to transmit information. Genes are known as replicators and survival constitutes the basis of evolution. Human culture can be seen as a "soup" (pg. 4) where one unit of cultural transmission can be viewed as one unit of imitation. Dawkins suggests memes propagate by jumping from brain to brain, also known as imitation. Different and conflicting memes struggle to dominate and influence our intellect which indicates that without cultural pressure memes can be ignored (e.g. think about the way catch phrases are transmitted - when read and repeated by another, a meme is formed; but if it is read and not repeated they remain paradoxically phenotypes).

Some classical writings on imitation and social life
After Aristotle, Jahoda identifies Erasmus Darwin (grandfather to Charles), "a free thinking physician and poet" (pg. 5). Research from 1963 indicates that Darwin, E. proposed his own theory of evolution which Jahoda believes to be quite modern. E. Darwin believed that imitation is key to supporting human social life because imitation gives rise to the origin of all social bonds - sympathy. From childhood onwards, man is essentially imitative. Education and the history of civilisation rely on this. Other literature (1877-2000) covers imitation extensively ranging from the animal world (e.g. ant colonies) to world history. Individualistic views generated some ill-tempered debates. Jahoda quotes Baldwin, 1897: "Everything that is learnt is copied, reproduced, assimilated, from one's fellows" (pg. 8). Imitation and innovation can't be separated as they are integral parts of the same cycle. Baldwin proposed a new factor in evolution - that evolutionary direction is integral to intellectual capacity and conscious awareness. Learned behaviours can become instinctive.

Some striking echoes from the past
Blackmore indicates that imitation is not conscious or deliberate. Songs are memes. Lyrics influence individuals. Music has been banned through the ages. Mathematical models have been constructed to demonstrate how ideas from external environments develop much like language. Ideas compete with each other for ascendancy to avoid diminished consciousness. Without regular activation, thoughts disappear.

When is a metaphor more than a metaphor?
Jahoda explores the concept of competition between memes and questions if aggression is to be taken literally or metaphorically. When do memes stop being thought of as active agents and become active agents? Consistent view is that humans are active agents who invent, innovate and imitate but not necessarily in a conscious and deliberate manner. Metaphors are correct but not accurate in nature, Jahoda argues. There is nothing wrong with metaphors per se if they can be translated back "into literal discourse" (pg. 12).

Jahoda quotes Blackmore "the real driving force behind [progress] is the interest of the memes" (pg. 12) . Jahoda reveals Blackmore's indication that intention has been transferred to the memes. As indicated previously, memes achieve nominal success through cultural pressure to conform and can go ignored.

Concluding comments
Jahoda questions how Blackmore's work has reasonably added to fundamental advances in genetics. Comparisons between other theories reveal it is generally accepted that there is a vast pool of memes in society. Some are selected for imitation. Selection does not imply conscious or deliberate action. However, while many commentators have based their work on some element of social and biological processes, Jahoda notes that differences stem from Blackmore's view favouring memes as active and humans as passive. Baldwin's comments that link imitation and suggestion implying that humans have active roles were not addressed by Blackmore. Invention and creation of novelty generates imitation, but does it mean that older theories that treat humans as active agents are better grounded?

Barton, C. M. (2004). Book Review: Genes, Memes and Human History.

Barton, C. M. (2004).  Book Review: Genes, Memes and Human History.  European Journal of Archaeology, 7(85).  Retrieved on May 16, 2010 from http://eja.sagepub.com


Introduction
Barton's review of Shennan reveals that other domains of research are also interested in Darwinian algorithms and their applicability to social and cultural change.  Barton reminds us that there is general misconception and misconstrual of Darwinian theory and social Darwinism.  Questionable progressivism of the 19th century that permeated society reminds us that research can only be understood within current reality - thoughts based on situational activity opens potential pathways to the future.  Deeper levels of analysis are only available when component parts have been identified as necessary and linked.  Pejorative associations are subject to predominant culture values that evolve through transformation and adaptation.  Barton argues that archaeology provides a solid foundation for determining complex processes of long-term change and a comprehensive theoretical framework that takes into account both cognitive and behavioural aspects.  Darwin has already provided the platform.


The Darwinian perspective in Shennan's book covers behavioural ecology, culture as an inheritance system, cultural traditions, life history and demography, subsistence and exchange, gender relations, intragroup social relationships, and intergroup dynamics.  Barton indicates that while the book covers no new ground in behavioural ecology, concepts on the importance of individuals as opposed to groups as the key point for trial and error methodology (heurism) are introduced.  Shennan looks at things from a human behavioural ecologist's (HBE) view, but states that the focus has generally been on the short-term. He attempts to reposition human behavioural ecology concepts to understand society at archaeological level and integrate components into a more inclusive theoretical package.  Barton highlights the chapter on social learning, where Shennan has integrated components of Richerson and Boyd's work.  The discussion on inheritance system is significantly linked to Darwinian theory and social behaviour.


Barton defines natural selection thus: a relatively straightforward manifestation of differential transmission of genetic information from parent to offspring via chemical replication of four DNA base pairs in living organisms.  Darwinian theory provides algorithms that understands complex operating systems - where information determines behaviour and is transmitted from agent to agent.  Human culture systems are an information transmitting system.  Barton states that is why Darwinian theory is applicable.  Not because we are biological organisms.


Cultural tradition can be examined by tracing archaeological Anglo-american tradition where past culture has been "out of favour for nearly half a century" (pg. 4).  Darwinian theory is a good theory, but it is not necessary to delve deeply into the identification of prehistoric ethnic groups.  It is suggested that we need only consider the processes responsible for spatial and temporal transmission linked to archaeological record.  Recent literature has identified important links to social interaction and change, and Shennan builds on this to make the argument compelling.


Demographics and current understanding of population booms and waves indicates reproductive decisions are individual.  Selective pressures affect the balance of birth space and care.  Shennan states that increased birth rate does not always correlate to population growth.  K strategy is a human variability that is maintained to keep the population below capacity.  Implications are far reaching, Barton suggests.


Ironically, optimal foraging theory explains how humans are natural conservationists when the focus is on the short term.  Such behaviour is more rare when considering the long term.  Shennan uses documented cases of diminishing or destroying a resource base (e.g. book burning).  Insights from these case studies reflect the origins and evolution of agricultural societies.  Shennan uses economic law of comparative advantage to study the exchange.


Male-female roles and interactions play a significant part in selective control.  Pressure has significant influence in determining the differences in men and women.  Patterns vary considerably according to social and natural context, with resource cited as the significant indicator.


Barton encourages readers to read Shennan's book for it's attempt at unifying critical theory specifically and comprehensively for archaeology.  New and valuable insights can be applied to archaeological record regardless of Darwinian sympathies.  Work published in 1997 by Barton and Clark highlighted the diverse Darwinian approaches in Anglo-american archaeology.  Archaeology can be seen as a unique discipline that offers a scientific approach when reflecting on human society in history.  Barton sees in Shennan's work the same observation for a need of a general theory that embodies neo-Darwinian evolution and includes human behavioural systems.


Barton concludes that as more diverse elements of the domain are linked, a more comprehensive theoretical approach to understanding ourselves is established.  Maturity of the discipline will build on this work and reveal the potential for contributing toward this objective.

Walter, A. (2007). Biology and social life: book review/Biologie et vie sociale: note de lecture: The trouble with memes: deconstructing Dawkin's monster: An Essay Review of the Selfish Meme: A Critical Reappraisal by Kate Distin and Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution by Peter J. Richerson and Robert Boyd.

Walter, A. (2007).  Biology and social life: book review/Biologie et vie sociale: note de lecture: The trouble with memes: deconstructing Dawkin's monster: An Essay Review of the Selfish Meme: A Critical Reappraisal by Kate Distin and Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution by Peter J. Richerson and Robert Boyd.  Social Science Information, 46(691).  Retrieved on May 16, 2010 from http://ssi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/46/4/691


Introduction
Walter begins by introducing a brief history of the meme - the cultural counterpart to the gene - introduced as a concept by Dawkins in 1976 and latterly by Lumsden and Wilson in 1981 repackaged as culturgen.


Walter questions whether the meme is useful or adequate in accounting for culture.  Critics argue that culture can't be determined the same way that genes can.  Walter states that replacing meme theory with culturgen theory will not increase understanding of cultural transmission.  How is culture conceptualised, he asks?


Dawkin's definition of a meme is described by Distin as a 'unit of information residing in the brain' that is dependent on representational context.  It includes ideas, skills, concepts and procedures that are replicated from one mind to another by way of communication (e.g. farming methods).  The external consequences of that unit of information define observable behaviour (phenotypic effects).  Walter states that all ideas that have the potential to be transmitted qualify as memes.  Ideas that are possible but are not used are referred to as recessive memes.  Ideas that are useful will be transmitted.  Emotions cannot be counted as memes as they have no representational content.  Instead, we are encouraged to think of emotions as reactions to memes.  Walter specifically states "[t]he mental representations of other species, and possibly earlier hominid species, also do not qualify as memes. For example, frog representations of flies do not count as memes. In order to qualify, representations have to be sufficiently abstract" (p. 5).


Distin believes that only modern man is capable of understanding representations of representations (meta-representations) and uses simian behaviour as an example.  An ape may pull leaves off a twig to fish for termites but does not consider the twig a tool for that purpose.  The former is learned behaviour or instrumental behaviour.  The latter is a formation of the abstract conceptualisation 'ant dipper'.  What is crucial is that the concept can be detached and placed in abstract with other context independent concepts.  For example, icanhascheezburger is a meme that uses the concept of animal activity and human thought process to create humour.  Dawkins proposed that culture does not solely consist of meta-representations, but culture can be defined by the significant use of such representations.


Walter indicates that complex learning can be achieved through mindless mimicry, but Distin argues that rules are required to structure memes, and social learning is vital to memetic transmission.  So only representation that involves social learning is considered to be a meme.  Blackmore indicates that cultural transmission occurs through imitation.  Distin identifies three kinds of imitation:

1. imitation of the surface form of the behaviour;
2. imitation of the complex structure of behaviour (distinguishing between component parts of behavioural patterns and those that are identified as reciprocal); and
3. imitation formulated in terms of rules or general principles (e.g. recipes).

Walter states a preference for imitation formulated in terms of rules or general principles owing to its' adherence to rules.  He suggests that "norms are critical because following a norm means following a rule, and rules can be stated in terms of ideas" (p. 6).  Walter adds that memes are required to remain particulate and integrative.  That means that they have to remain constant in what they represent and still be open to external influence (e.g. transmission of farming methods is a sequential learning process that remains particulate.  It is integrative in it's approach to individual innovation in application, but the original transmission remains intact).  Memes are seen to represent component parts of larger and more complex memes (e.g. semester modules are memes that can stand alone, but are integrated to accept memes from the university, a meme in itself).


Critics argue that units of information represented in individuals are not identical to each other.  Walter cites Sperber who proposes that three conditions should be met:

1. A must cause B;
2. A must be identical to B; and
3. B must be inherited from A.

He argues that if B copies A's mental content, the possibility is strong that transferred content does not remain intact.  Background context on which beliefs are based is different between A and B.


It is suggested that individuals cannot perceive the world as it truly is, nor are we perceiving an ideal platonic reality.  We create our world through conscious experience, and Distin refers to the meme as an example of Platonic essence.  To construct identical instantiations would require conceptualisation through Platonic essences.  The categorisation of memes defines its' class.  Each representation in individual brains is the experience or units of information that have been received.  Walters states that even though individuals gather information from the same source (identity of stimulations), it does not guarantee identity of content.  Abstraction of information depends upon individual focus within context.


Similarities that occur in brain events can be measured statistically, Walter indicates.  Distin proposes that statistical variations in memes are due to distortions and omissions ('noise').  The ellimination of noise allows the individual to access the true essence of the meme.  It is generally accepted that diversity in representations indicates that ideas are not the same as essences.  There is undeniable variation in biological systems, Walter states, and messy, empirical variation constitutes Darwin's Dangerous Idea that renders indoctrination in biology and zoology void.  Walter refers to Oyama who critiqued the notion that information is passed through DNA and suggests instead that a 'ghost in the gene' exists.  Distin applies this reasoning to memes suggesting that information is the 'ghost in the meme'.  Genes are representations of observable behaviour through the medium of DNA while memes are representative of the cultural traits.  Walter suggests the critical difference is that genes have a specific value that allows copying and memes do not.  He adds that genes have a physical manifestation that enable transfer from source to recipient, whereas behaviour generated by thinking is not a shared activity between brains.  Memes are the imaginary bridge that connect us.


We know that memes are part of a larger more complex meme, so Walter asks what constitutes learning when nothing is physically transmitted to the brain.  What would happen to memetics if we learned without regard for traditional concepts that were originally meant to teach us skills essential to society?


The Richerson and Boyle Variations
Walter investigates an alternative to memetics.  Richerson and Boyle indicate information to be a mental state that affects behaviour and is achieved through learning (behaviour includes ideas, beliefs, values, attitudes).  Research into the spread and disappearance of cultural variants (unit of culture) will help monitor transmission of the learning process.  Walter quotes "culture is taught by motivated teachers, acquired by motivated learners, and stored and manipulated in brains" (pg. 9).  Richerson and Boyle simply state that adopting a Darwinian approach to culture is useful when considering cultural variants and their potential similarity to genes.


The differences between Richerson and Boyle's alternative is that cultural variants are not replicators and the particulate claim does not apply when held against Sperber's objections.  Rather than being information transmitted from one brain to another, cultural variants generate behaviour that is observed and replicated, "... a population of similar but not identical learned representations" (pg.10).


Cultural Selection and Social Learning
Richerson and Boyd insist that cultural variants are transmitted through what Walter views as social learning methods.  Imitation is prevalent among all species, but social learning is highly developed in humans.  Richerson and Boyd make the crucial distinction between learning and imitation.  Furthermore, they hypothesise the following valuation: if learning is cheap, people will learn; if learning is expensive, imitation will ensue.


Walter makes clear the difference between natural selection and biased transmission.  Natural selection is when a predominant culture can have an effect that changes the cultural composition of the population.  Biased transmission are cultural variants that are selected for imitation and passed on.


Our culture is unique in that we are the only species to pass down innovation carried by multiple generations.  Our learning is cumulative and instead of re-inventing the wheel every generation, we learn from mistakes and successes made in the environment without having to approach it from a basic foundation.  Richerson and Boyd argue that imitation facilitates cumulative improvement (time not spent re-inventing the wheel).


So what's the difference between the two, Walter asks.  Richerson and Boyd's hypothesis is that early man developed his brain through cultural benefits derived from imitation.  Environments that are extremely unstable (variable) are unable to pass on information that is retained in the long term.  Mal-adaptive or adverse behaviour is common because of social learning. New non-parental models leave individuals open to manipulation and exploitation unlike traditional parental models.  Stable environments (thousands of generations) produce development or evolution.  Social learning (a.k.a cultural adaptation) occurs in variable environments that change slowly.  Richerson and Boyd add that it is a mistake to reflect on behavioural ecology without considering cultural environment.  Farming methods in diverse communities vary irrespective of physical similarities.  Richerson and Boyd believe that cultural tradition explains why methods are used and learned by succeeding generations better than ecological contingency can.


Operant Conditioning by any other name ...
Walter believes that there are important consequences that result as a matter of course in relating cultural evolution to biological evolution.  Skinner's perspective recognises that there exist "genetically evolved dimensions that underlie behaviour" (pg. 13).  He also believed that although cultural selection differed from natural selection, "no new behavioural process" (pg. 13) was involved suggesting cultural evolution is based on operant conditioning (where behaviour is rewarded or punished for each action until it is associated with either a positive or negative experience).  Walter quotes from work Skinner published in 1953: "the culture into which an individual is born is composed of all the variables affecting him which are arranged by other people" (pg. 14).  There are elementary processes by which behavioural repertoires develop.  Responses may be shaped by social and/or physical environment.  Conformity requires regulation of contributed standards to develop a self-sustaining social system.


The chimera of representational content
Skinner states that mental events can be explained and accepted as brain behaviour.  It is considered a possibility that concepts of folk psychology (memes of past generations that include beliefs and desires) may be replaced with neurological assertions.


Cognitive theory on dualism stipulate that mental events exist and are represented in separate physical brain events.  The materialist asks is it possible to describe brain events in a manner that circumvents the notion that a non-physical dimension exists?  Walter notes the difficulty in understanding dualism may lie in articulation because links we use include both psychological and physical terms to determine the experience.  Critics argue that it is a new metaphor for connection to describe cognitive process.


The era for representational fantasies of cognitive scientists is over, Walter indicates. Theories based on operational behaviour that link definition to consequence are required.  While non-cognitive learning theory is doing this, Walter indicates that Richerson and Boyd are muddying the waters in their exploration of cultural variants.


If the metaphor doesn't fit, don't wear it
Walter suggests that metaphors are by and large unhelpful and views them as distracting and irrelevant.  He argues the point by introducing the debate on whether some memes are like viruses (e.g. pernicious effects of religion).  Distin argues against the virus concept as memes do not replicate the way that genes do, so there is nothing to hijack.  Richerson and Boyd defend the virus as a rogue cultural variant - a self-perpetuating meme that is socially undesirable.


Walter categorises the division of labour between scientists this way: evolutionary biologists/psychologists investigate evolutionary history for proximate mechanisms of behaviour.  Neurobiologists and psychologists of learning and conditioning are obliged to investigate how proximate mechanisms function.  To determine the nature of what drives and constrains learning requires different tools (mental models, perspectives, etc.).  Operant conditioning tools cannot answer why a thing is, or what in evolutionary history or physiology reinforces mechanisms.

Holton, E. F. and Yamkovenko, B. (2008). Strategic Intellectual Capital Development: A Defining Paradigm for HRD?

Holton, E. F. and Yamkovenko, B. (2008).  Strategic Intellectual Capital Development: A Defining Paradigm for HRD?  Human Resource Development Review, 7(270).  Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/7/3/270


Introduction
Holton and Yamkovenko state that a new paradigm in HRD is required for growth and evolution.  Performance is directly linked to relevance and current models are generally said to have achieved success.  The authors pose three questions:

1. What approaches to HRD practice will enable organisations to prosper in the decades after 2010?
2. What fundamental shifts will need to occur in order for HRD to be a strategic partner?
3. What paradigms enable HRD to drive good organisations to greatness?

As knowledge and expertise is seen as the key source to retaining the competitive advantage, organisations are demanding more from HRD professionals.  Holton and Yamkovenko argue current practice is inadequate in fulfilling these targets.  The authors highlight that performance based practice in HRD is a broad strategy that extends minimally past staff support.  Holton and Yamkovenko propose a new paradigmatic focus in Strategic Intellectual Capacity Development (SICD).


The Foundation: Human Capital Theory
Human capital has been defined as individual knowledge and skills acquired through formal and non-formal learning.  Deliberate investment yields returns.  Productivity increases incrementally supported by knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for economic and social development.  This perspective highlights the shift to provide a more holistic view of human capital for modern business.  Studies indicate that benefits from investment in human capital range from improved health and nutrition to population control and better quality of life.  Enlightened society is able to participate in social and political processes.


Skills and ability result from education and apprenticeship.  Initial stages of HRD theory was conceptualised through a shared worldview of an era.  Disparity of income was equated to levels of knowledge and experience in an individual.  The environment was viewed as stable and opportunities were believed to be evenly distributed.  Schooling has been seen as a major source of investment in human capital.  Holton and Yamkovenko indicate that individuals with higher levels of education have more income.


If HRD uses the perspective of human capital and performance as a resource, Holton and Yamkovenko suggest attributes critical to understanding:

• human capital cannot be separated from the individual;
• investment in individuals results in human capital;
• human capital is related to economic growth.

While eduction levels are viewed as a source of productivity and growth, a distinction is made between general and specific knowledge.  Human capital is linked to task performance.  General human capital refers to overall education and experience; specific human capital refers said education to the scope of application limited to activity or context.  Specific human capital contributes to the core competence of an organisation.


Human Capital's Contribution to HRD
The Human Capital Planning (HCP) model takes the perspective of integrating and coordinating systems from the top down.  Sensitivity to rhetoric has been suggested as the reason for HRD's failure to encourage activity.  Holton and Yamkovenko indicate HRD would benefit from objectively aligning itself to help organisational purpose.


Key Concept #1: Intellectual Capacity
Three components for intellectual capital:

1. Human capital - individual skills and knowledge; created by changing individuals through provision of knowledge and skills.  HRD develop human capital through training systems that improve performance.  Identity negotiation is necessary to instill shared vision and improve climate.  Holton and Yamkovenko state that shared cultural beliefs increase employee retention;
2. Social capital - strength of relationship between individual members of the organisation.  Social networks are fundamental as a strategic resource to transfer and share knowledge.  Networking between organisation and environment endows an individual with the ability to accomplish more, Holton and Yamkovenko state.  Effective HRD practices result in strong group dynamics and team development; and
3. Structural capital - repository of information accessible from various sources.  Organisations change to adapt to external and internal influences.  Enhancing individual capacity to learn breaks down barriers to group learning.  HRD acts as a change manager to continuously improve critical processes.

Holton and Yamkovenko suggest human capital as a potent perspective of HRD's role.

• HRD is responsible for acquiring, developing and maintaining intellectual resources;
• individual training and development leads to organisational development;
• rhetoric should be amended to develop intellectual capital instead of human capital;
• clarity in understanding the processes of learning, expertise and performance;
• intellectual capital is inclusive and should stand any type of intervention; and
• dedicated resources (staff) may be needed to effectively maintain critical assets.

Holton and Yamkovenko suggest that likely objection to maintaining HRD as responsible for intellectual capital may stem from capacity to buy innovation to strengthen structural capital.  Limiting HRD to individual learning and development does not make full use of it's potential.


Key Concept #2: Strategic Focus of HRD
Criticisms of HR practice state that strategy has not been implemented.  HR professionals struggle to accept new self-image and organisations have not changed their perspective of human resource.  Holton and Yamkovenko state that organisations require HRD partnerships to increase intellectual capital  to remain competitive.  They indicate it is a choice HRD professionals can take to lead or leave to other professionals.


HRD has not thus far developed into a strategic partner.  More than facilitation of the process is required.  In developing intellectual capital, an organisation achieves strategic goals.  HRD professionals are required to understand goals and strategically align intellectual capital.


Strategic Human Resource Management Research
Accepted theory on approaches to human capital/resource indicates human resources operates at three levels: strategic, managerial and operational.  Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) has two fundamental assertions:

1. skills, behaviours and interactions of individuals create the means for strategy formulation and implementation; and
2. HRM practices develop the capabilities of the resource pool.

A review of academic literature presents several themes which have the following implications:

1. direct vertical links between HR practices and strategic management process must be adopted; and
2. HR practices must be coordinated to reflect patterns of actions that support organisational goals.

By developing the resource pool, organisations are provided with increased cohesion and flexibility.  HR practices add value and enhance intellectual capital, but competitive advantage is derived from the human resource capital Holton and Yamkovenko argue.  Influential models in practice are those that are adapted to suit the external environment.


Literature confirms that human resource practice contributes significantly to organisational performance.  HR practice is designed to achieve three states:

1. developing HR architecture from conception;
2. developing operational effectiveness; and
3. aligning HR practice with organisational goals.

Cross-functional learning and work management issues are areas for development.  Not all individuals use the same processes in practice owing to levels of hierarchy and responsibility.  The development of human capital strategically links to competitive advantage that benefits the organisation.  Employment modes dictate functional links to overall strategy and direct the approaches an organisation takes to add value to member knowledge and skill.


Strategic Human Capital Development
Holton and Yamkovenko argue that the focal point in this discussion is that expertise in individuals is an organisational asset.  Investment in human capital results in three main areas:

1. at individual level the investment results in increased knowledge, skills and abilities that lead to personal development and growth;
2. at organisational level investments result in higher levels of perfomance and productivity; and
3. at societal level higher levels of education and development result in cultural and economic growth.

Benefits are justified at every level and aggregate results yield result beyond returns.  Human capital cannot be owned which signifies it as different from other capital.  However, as organisations depend on human capital for survival it is imperative to harness it.


Training related to specific skills that affect organisational core competencies leads to organisation specific human capital.  Capital increases correlate positively with stability or increase in market share.  Research suggests the need for focus on intangible assets that include knowledge, skills and experience.


Managing human capital is a complex process and roles must be clearly analysed for objective links to core competencies.  HRM practices are conducted according to cost evaluation of the project.  Outcomes of such practices remain unknown Holton and Yamkovenko state.  Expenditure based on selection and training are supported but links are not made to increased productivity as a result of selection and training.


Viewing training and development as an expense leads to underinvestment in human capital that has a knock-on effect on performance, organisation and society inclusively.  Holton and Yamkovenko suggest that intellectual capacity is a key feature for future direction but is often lost in strategic discussions.


Summary
Holton and Yamkovenko indicate that literature on systematic approaches to strategically intergrating HRD in organisations is lacking.  The objective of organisations is to accomplish its goals.  Successful organisations achieve their objective.  Most organisations depend on intellectual capital to enable achieving their objective.  The authors wonder why a strategic approach has not been adopted.


Conclusion - Strategic Intellectual Capital Development
Holton and Yamkovenko link HRD to two key concepts:

1. intellectual capacity; and
2. strategic approach that result in Strategic Intellectual Capital Development.

Strategic Intellectual Capital Development offers systematic processes of leveraging knowledge and enables:

• organisations to prosper into the future;
• HRD to undertake strategic partnership; and
• HRD to lead organisations to innovative success and reputation.

As Strategic Intellectual Capital Development is under-represented in HRD literature, the authors suggest that research focus on a broader view of the organisation and a more in-depth study of developments in intellectual capital be undertaken.  The connection between growth and social process is considered valuable if it can be retained within the organisation.


Investment in training pay off in employee sales, morale
Jamin Arvig recounts how a frustrated customer-service representative quit because he didn't believe he had received the training he needed to provide knowledgeable service and succeed in his position. Arvig had worried that training would be expensive and would take reps away from sales, but implementing education programs has increased employee morale and boosted business, he found.

Tuttle, M. (2002). A Review and Critique of Van Maanen and Schein's "Toward a Theory of Organizational Socialization" and Implications for Human Resource Management.

Tuttle, M. (2002).  A Review and Critique of Van Maanen and Schein's "Toward a Theory of Organisational Socialisation" and Implications for Human Resource Management.  Human Resource Development Review, 1(66).  Retrieved on April 27, 2010 from http://hrd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1/1/66


Introduction
Tuttle takes the view that HRD is practitioner led facilitation of developing and maintaining human resource.  Her question is whether organisations need to identify perfect talent from without, or if it can be homegrown.  Organisational strategy highlights the significance of collective activity in developing social culture.  Transactive memory lies in collective interaction and interpersonal congruence.  Evolving culture decides new protocols and practices to adapt for survival.  Commitment to group values is the foundation for achieving survival.  Tuttle reminds us that the bulk of 'initial theoretical thought on organisational socialisation' was produced in the 70s and based on shared worldview of the era.


Organisational Socialisation Theory Building Journey
Tuttle uses Dubin's eight features of theory-building research.

1. the units of a theory - the elements that interact to create the phenomenon observed are presented and defined;
2. laws of interaction - the relationship and its effects on others have been determined;
3. defining the boundaries - attention has been paid to the focus of influences that determine interaction;
4. system states - the resultant outcomes of influence in group reaction have been identified;
5. propositions - considered and logical perspectives have been put forward;
6. empirical indicator - each unit of theory has recognisable means of testing;
7. hypotheses or research questions - created to direct the focus of research;
8. testing - the results have been determined according to the propositions.

These characteristics of theory building have been used to assess the development of organisational socialisation.  Tuttle uses Van Maanen and Schein as an example of theory that develops coherent argument and addresses contentious issues as areas for future development.


Units of the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
Defining units of theory depend on the level of abstraction.  Tuttle presents five implied components of socialisation:

• targets - the varying degrees to which individuals experience social adjustment, and role and function during initial stages of membership;
• agents - the perspective of interaction can be seen as led from observable group behaviour or individual led action;
• process - three aspects to socialisation are 1) in role and responsibility where functional behaviour depends on learning the requirements; 2) categorisation on entry and through subsequent promotion increases individual awareness of group hierarchy; and 3) interaction affects individual levels of inclusion;
• content - individual perspectives about roles and functions are linked to the manner in which it has been received, the organisational strategy and the phase of development within the continuums (1) collective vs individual; 2) formal vs informal; 3) sequential vs random; 4) fixed vs variable; 5) serial vs dysjunctive; 6) investiture vs divestiture; pg.8); and
• role responses - 1) a custodial perspective that limits innovation is individual acceptance of roles that facilitate learning through culture, policy and procedure; 2) content innovation is individual disagreement with aspects of policy that leads to change benefiting the organisation; 3) role innovation changes group mission.

Laws of Interaction for the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
Tuttle looks at the two ways in which units interact.  The first includes agent and target interaction through boundary movements, the second focuses on agent and content influence over target role responses.


Assumptions
Van Maanen and Schein state:

• transition generates anxiety, so novice members are motivated to learn quickly;
• interaction with existing members provides cues on interpretation and reaction that enhance internalisation;
• socialisation sustains culture;
• individual experiences may differ in focus, but adjustment processes are similar;
• individuals do not need to adopt organisational culture to be contributing members; and
• theory transcends organisational and individual differences.

Boundary Movements
New members are seen to be on the periphery.  Existing members test novices on self-image to establish group knowledge of individual skill and ability.  Levels of performance decide acceptance and correlate positively to an increase in responsibility.


Influence of Content
Organisations are able to influence socialisation by various means e.g. isolation of members or non-differentiation between existing and novice members.  These tactics provide a distinguishable sequence of events that result in innovation.  Using individual experience, skill and talent produces alternative reactions to adjustment.  By tailoring activity content, role responses that are desirable within the organisation can be achieved.


Boundaries of the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
Tuttle proposes that further work into identifying socialisation through the perspective of individual differences and environment is required.  Van Maanen and Schein indicate their theory includes only pre-determined elements that are mainly invariant.  Critics argue that these are influences that cannot be ignored.


System States of the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
If theory is viewed as an evolutionary process, adjustments to component parts represent a different state of purpose.  Over time, individuals and groups progress through a series of system states.  The process and interacting elements of socialisation affect the system as a whole, creating linked relationships and feedback loops.

• System state 1 - positive and negative feedback loops maintain equilibrium through self-balancing processes;
• System state 2 - feedback loops identify practices that lead to growth or decline; and
• System state 3 - a transformative shift in functioning leads to a state of instability where spontaneous emergence of new structures and behaviour do not promote equilibrium.

Stable organisational equilibrium is achieved through individual acceptance of culture.  A ripple effect of non-conformation during individual transition behaviour effects changes to the system state.  Although resulting behaviours from individuals change or affect the organisation, Van Maanen and Schein suggest that it is the result of organisation led processes.


Propositions about the Theory of Organisational Socialisation
Once a theory has been formulated, Dubin addresses its' utility through empirical testing.  In stating truths, propositions of theory in socialising are activated.  Truths are infinite and subject to extraction.


Empirical Indicators of Key Terms, Hypotheses and Tests for Organisational Socialisation
Experience of the socialisation process is divided into three areas: anticipatory socialisation, encounter and metamorphosis.  When comparing work created from one source, observable differences create difficulties in measuring knowledge base accurately.  Tuttle uses research in academia as an example.  Work cited from the same theory is not concluded in such a way as to add to theory base.  Some work pushes the scope of theory while others use the model in praxis to test empirically.  Recommendations to find alternative or supplemental measurements of organisational tactics and role responses reveal that tactics are less effective over time owing to an increase of influence in social elements.


Developments in research define the construct of socialisation through 6 domains:

1. performance proficiency;
2. people, relating to work relationships;
3. politics, concerning the power structures within the organisation;
4. language, understanding the technical jargon of the role and the organisation as a whole;
5. understanding organisational goals and values, both explicit and implicit; and
6. the history of the organisation and its traditions, customs and myths.

Peripheral outcomes of socialisation are turn over, job satisfaction, job performance and organisational commitment.


Implications for HRD
Successful intergration of individual with organisation occurs through socialisation.  Positive interpersonal congruence leads to commitment and high performance levels.  Theory-building research processes require iterative cycles to refine thinking.  Tuttle proposes that future research be aligned with linking individual research to the theory.  Each contribution validates praxis.  Progress facilitates the potential for emergent theory to base HRD practice on.